Reports

This report examines social equality aspects related to resource recovery through solid waste composting and wastewater irrigation. The report shows that women are represented in greatest numbers at the base of the recycling chain, most often as informal waste pickers and as sorters of recyclables with limited access to resources and upward mobility. Despite a wide gender gap in the solid waste and sanitation sectors, women play a key role in both municipal waste reduction and food safety where irrigation water is unsafe. Analyzing the gender dimension is important for understanding household responses to recycling programs, differences between the formal and informal sectors as well as along the waste-to-resource value chain from collection to treatment and reuse. The report stresses the important role of women in household waste management, including waste segregation, and the power of women-dominated waste picker associations, where the informal sector plays an essential role alongside the formal sector.

Wastewater-fed aquaculture has a long history, especially in Asia. This report examines three empirical cases of integrated wastewater treatment and aquaculture production. From an aquaculture entrepreneur’s perspective, the combination of fish farming and wastewater treatment in common waste stabilization ponds allows significant savings on capital (pond infrastructure) and running costs (wastewater supporting fish feed). On the other hand, the treatment plant owner will have the benefit of a partner taking over plant maintenance. Given the importance of food safety and related perceptions, the report is focusing on innovative business models where the marketed fish is not in direct contact with the treated wastewater, but only the brood stock or fish feed. The financial analysis of the presented systems shows profitable options for the fish farmer, operational and in part capital cost recovery for the treatment plant, and as the treatment plant operators can stop charging households a sanitation fee, eventually a triple-win situation for both partners and the served community.

A necessary extension of the concept of Resource Recovery and Reuse with an even higher priority is the prevention and reduction of waste. One concern, in particular, is food waste, which constitutes the largest share of human waste. Target 12.3 of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is to ‘halve per capita global food waste at the retail and consumer levels and reduce food losses along production and supply chains, including post-harvest losses, by 2030’. For this report, over 400 businesses were analyzed to identify common approaches and business models to address the food waste challenge. The business models are presented under seven categories measurement, redistribution, resell, value addition, responsible waste collection, resource recovery, and recycling with a special focus on their application potential to the Global South.

This paper outlines a new and integrated water storage agenda for resilient development in a world increasingly characterised by water stress and climate uncertainty and variability.; Storing water has long been a cornerstone of socio-economic development, particularly for societies exposed to large climatic variability. Nature has always supplied the bulk of water storage on earth, but built storage has increased significantly, particularly over the twentieth century. Today, numerous countries suffer from water storage gaps and increasingly variable precipitation, threatening sustainable development and even societal stability. There is a growing need to develop more storage types and manage existing storage better. At the same time, the policy, engineering, and scientific communities may not fully recognise the extent of these storage gaps and how best to manage them. There are large and uncertain costs and benefits of different types of storage, and developing storage can be risky and controversial. Although there is consensus that built and natural storage are fundamentally complementary, there is still no pragmatic agenda to guide future integrated water storage development.; This paper argues that water storage should be recognised as a service rather than only a facility. More than volumes of water stored behind a dam or in a watershed, what ultimately matters is the ability to provide different services at a particular time and place with a given level of assurance. Integrated storage systems should be developed and managed to deliver a targeted service standard. This will reduce the costs of new storage development and make the benefits more sustainable.; As this paper demonstrates, there are numerous data gaps pertaining to water storage, as well as a need for greater clarity on some key concepts. This paper does not introduce new data or research but rather provides a review of some of the current knowledge and issues around water storage, and outlines a new, integrated and constructive water storage agenda for the decades to come.

Pragmatic, cost-effective, socially inclusive and scalable solutions that reduce risks from recurrent cycles of floods and droughts would greatly benefit emerging economies. One promising approach known as Underground Transfer of Floods for Irrigation (UTFI) involves recharging depleted aquifers with seasonal high flows to provide additional groundwater for irrigated agriculture during dry periods, while also mitigating floods. It has been identified that there is potential for implementing the UTFI approach across large parts of South Asia. The first pilot-scale implementation of UTFI was carried out in a rural community of the Indo-Gangetic Plain in India, and performance of the approach was assessed over three years from a technical, environmental, socioeconomic and institutional perspective. The results are promising and show that UTFI has the potential to enhance groundwater storage and control flooding, if replicated across larger scales. The challenges and opportunities for more wide-scale implementation of UTFI are identified and discussed in this report. In areas with high potential for implementation, policy makers should consider UTFI as an option when making decisions associated with relevant water-related development challenges.

There is increasing recognition of the need to bring about changes across the full spectrum of agricultural practices to ensure that, in future, food production systems are more diverse, sustainable and resilient. In this context, the objectives of irrigation need to be much more ambitious, shifting away from simply maximizing crop yields to maximizing net benefits across a range of uses of irrigation water, including ecosystems and nature-based solutions. One important way to achieve this is by better integrating fisheries into the planning, design, construction, operation and management of irrigation systems. Irrigation a major contributor to the Green Revolution has significantly improved agricultural production worldwide, with consequent benefits for food security, livelihoods and poverty alleviation. Today, irrigated agriculture represents about 21 percent of cultivated land, but contributes approximately 40% of the total global crop production. Many governments continue to invest in irrigation as a cornerstone of food security and rural development. Investments in irrigation often represent a pragmatic form of adaptation to changing climatic conditions. This guide focuses on how to sustainably optimize and broaden the range of benefits from irrigation development - not only economic but also social and environmental benefits. It emphasizes the opportunities that fisheries could provide to increase food production and economic returns, enhance livelihoods and public health outcomes, and maintain key ecosystem services. The guide considers possible trade-offs between irrigation and fisheries, and provides recommendations on how these could be minimized.

Globally, 50% of the population relies on on-site sanitation systems (OSS) such as septic tanks and pit latrines and is, hence, in need of Fecal Sludge Management (FSM) solutions. India is a classic example, given that its government built more than 100 million toilets with the majority relying on OSS. With 400 fecal sludge treatment plants (FSTPs) in various stages of planning, procurement and construction, this report comes at an opportune time to present findings on FSM business models already implemented across India. Interviews were conducted with a total of 105 Emptying and Transport (Eamp;T) operators in 72 towns and cities across 16 states in India, 22 representatives from municipalities that own emptying vehicles, 18 FSTP operators and more than 30 institutions. In addition, procurement tenders for Eamp;T and FSTPs in 13 states were analyzed. In total, 18 business models were identified, several with energy or nutrient recovery components. The analysis of Eamp;T operators revealed clear differences that steer a business towards success or failure. The majority of operators still dispose fecal sludge in an unsafe manner, due to the lack of official disposal or treatment sites. In comparison to sewer networks, the capital and operating costs (per capita) of FSTPs were significantly lower. The report provides evidence-based discussions on policies and recommendations for scaling and sustaining FSM.

Based on primary data from fecal sludge (FS) treatment plants in three West African urban regions (Ouagadougou in Burkina Faso, Greater Accra in Ghana, and Grand Nokou in Benin), FS collection and treatment patterns were analyzed to identify possible scenarios for resource recovery (RR) through FS co-composting. FS collection was analyzed for up to 7 years, in part per day, month and season, as well as FS characteristics to understand peak flows, FS qualities and related variations to plan for appropriate RR technology and capacities. Overall, the FS volumes collected by vacuum trucks were not significantly affected by the calendar days, months or seasons. Commonly assumed increases during rainy months were, for example, only recorded in Ouagadougou. FS composition appeared highly variable with a pronounced difference in total solids between FS collected from households versus institutional sources, likely indicating that institutions are served more frequently. The analyzed treatment plants appear to be exploited beyond their capacity. RR for reuse can turn sludge disposal from a cost into a source of revenue with co-benefits for farmers and the environment, thereby reducing the pressure on tipping fees. The probability of the added co-compost production being financially viable on its own was estimated for all the study sites, indicating an earliest breakeven point after 5 to 8 years.

Over the last decade, the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) has explored the use of fecal sludge (FS) in combination with other organic waste sources to optimize FS treatment and composting for the production of a safe organic fertilizer, which can depending on demand be enriched with crop nutrients or pelletized for volume reduction, delayed decomposition or easier application. Based on IWMI’s experience, this training manual has been compiled for plant managers and trainers to help ensure that staff involved in FS treatment and production, and application of an FS-based co-compost adopt best practices in all processes involved. The manual can be adapted to local needs as required. It also includes information on compost registration and certification, as well as guidelines for co-compost application in the field.

The Arab region needs a new generation of policies and investments in agricultural water. Agricultural water management has always posed challenges and opportunities in the Arab world. However, unprecedented and accelerating drivers such as climate change, population growth, and land degradation make agricultural water management a more urgent priority than ever before. In addition, as part of the 2030 UN Agenda for Sustainable Development, Arab countries have committed to work towards an ambitious set of development targets, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Unless the right policies and investments are put in place, it will be difficult to achieve the SDGs, including ending hunger and providing clean water and sanitation for all. This paper is part of an ongoing collaboration between the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the International Water Management Institute to foster dialogue on agricultural water policies and investments in the context of the FAO led Regional Water Scarcity initiative. The purpose of the paper is to frame the key challenges and opportunities in the sector including emerging innovations in digital agriculture, water accounting, water supply and wastewater reuse and to lay out broad strategic directions for action.

Black soldier fly colonies can produce about 100 times more protein per year than chicken or soybeans, not to mention cattle, on the same area of land. The flies can directly feed on different types of organic wastes, leapfrogging closed loop processes within a circular food economy. Also, where no protein is needed, for example, to feed fish or pigs, the larvae can be processed into high-quality biodiesel. However, can this be done at scale? The answer is ‘Yes’. The report showcases some of the leading global businesses in Black Soldier Fly production.

In low- and middle-income countries, the management of fecal sludge from on-site sanitation systems has received little attention over many decades, resulting in insufficient or missing regulations to guide investments and management options. To address this gap, this report examines existing and emerging guidelines and regulations for fecal sludge management (FSM) along the sanitation service chain (user interface, containment, emptying, transport, treatment, valorization, reuse or disposal). It also draws empirical examples from guidelines across the globe to support policy-makers, planners, and sanitation and health officers, as well as consultants in low- and middle-income countries in the development and design of local and national FSM guidelines and regulations.

The United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development promises to achieve change in almost every aspect of life on Earth. Encompassing 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 targets, the Agenda marks the first time in history when all nations have agreed on how to chart their future. The SDGs are not just a global reporting exercise, however, but rather involve a global program that embraces country-led efforts. Guided by the ideas contained in the 2030 Agenda, each nation must seek to become more prosperous and sustainable, while contributing to the global effort at the same time. If all the countries achieve this, we will have a sustainable planet and a secure future for all. This document offers guidance on how developing countries can adapt the SDGs to their own contexts and priorities. It indicates important areas for developing countries to consider when creating their own program to achieve the SDGs, and provides examples of success to demonstrate concrete possibilities for progress.

To understand the full value of Resource Recovery and Reuse (RRR), a systematic assessment approach that balances complexity with practicality is required. This report highlights the methods available for quantifying and valuing social, environmental and economic costs and benefits of RRR, focusing on Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) as the primary framework. Rather than prescribing a standardized technique for conducting CBA for RRR, this report presents broad frameworks and several examples that can be catered to individual contexts. This results in a suggested eight-step process accompanied with suggested assessment techniques which have to be tailored to the type of question the assessment is meant to answer and related system boundaries.

The safe recovery of nutrients from our waste streams allows us to address the challenges of waste management and soil nutrient depletion conjointly. Commercialization of waste-based organic fertilizers such as FortiferTM (fecal sludge-based co-compost) has the potential to generate significant benefits for developing economies via cost recovery for the sanitation sector and the provision of an alternative agricultural input for smallholder farmers. To guide future FortiferTM businesses, this report presents examples of detailed market assessments, based on farmers’ perceptions, attitudes and willingness-to-pay (WTP) for a pelletized and non-pelletized FortiferTM co-compost. The research was conducted in the Greater Accra and Western regions in Ghana, and in and around Kampala (Uganda), Bangalore (India), Hanoi (Vietnam), and Kurunegala (Sri Lanka). Cross-country analyses helped to understand the effects of market drivers and, where possible, capture lessons learned for knowledge sharing.

Resource recovery and reuse (RRR) of domestic and agro-industrial waste has the potential to contribute to a number of financial, socioeconomic and environmental benefits. However, despite these benefits and an increasing political will, there remain significant barriers to build the required up-front capital which is discouraging private sector engagement. A systematic analysis and understanding of the enabling environment, public and private funding sources, risk-sharing mechanisms and pathways for cost recovery can help to identify opportunities to improve the viability of RRR solutions. This report looks at regulations and policies that remove disincentives for RRR, public and private funding sources for capital and operational costs, risk mitigation options through blending and structuring finance, and options for operational cost recovery.

There is a strong link between gender and energy in view of food preparation and the acquisition of fuel, especially in rural areas. This is demonstrated in a range of case studies from East and West Africa, where biochar, human waste and other waste resources have been used to produce briquettes or biogas as additional high-quality fuel sources. The synthesis of the cases concludes that resource recovery and reuse for energy offers an alternative to conventional centralized grid projects which, while attractive to investors and large-scale enterprises, do not necessarily provide job opportunities for marginalized communities. Reusing locally available waste materials for energy production and as soil ameliorant (in the case of biochar) in small enterprises allows women and youth who lack business capital to begin modest, locally viable businesses. The case studies offer concrete examples of small-scale solutions to energy poverty that can make a significant difference to the lives of women and their communities.

The karst dolomite aquifers of the North West Province in South Africa are among the most important in the nation. They serve as key water sources for municipal water supply and irrigation, and are also ecologically important in supplying springs that feed important rivers. Over-abstraction and consequent falling groundwater levels jeopardize water supply security, with increasing costs and risks to sustainable development. Better aquifer and conjunctive water management would improve water supply security and lower costs, with wider benefits to many sectors. This GRIPP Case Profile discusses these challenges and management experiences through the examples of two representative North West dolomite aquifers - the Grootfontein and Steenkoppies aquifers. These aquifers are relatively well understood hydrogeologically, and modern South African water law mandates sustainable use. Yet, underperforming collaboration between stakeholders using and managing the aquifers at various levels, and poor support from the national authority have led to an entrenched suboptimal equilibrium where stakeholders are reluctant to change behavior, despite awareness of the negative outcomes. Neither prescriptive local nor top-down organization has been effective. The synthesis argues for prioritized input from a legally mandated and capacitated convening authority (the national Department of Water and Sanitation) to catalyze and support effective local stakeholder groups and other governance initiatives. It calls for a renewed effort by this convening authority and other stakeholders, emphasizing mutually beneficial or “win-win” outcomes.

The second issue of the GRIPP Case Profile Series documents the use of water quotas and pricing mechanisms in Northwest China to control and manage groundwater. Since the 1970s, this region has experienced intensive groundwater abstraction by smallholder farmers. In 2002, however, the revised Water Law urged local authorities to regulate groundwater use in regions with overdraft. The Case Profile reviews, in detail, the use of smart card machines installed on wells by the local government to control abstraction. The study compares the situation in two counties where local authorities opted for two different types of regulatory mechanisms enabled by the smart cards: Minqin County - where they chose quotas, and Guazhou County - where they opted for a tiered water pricing system.; This Case Profile highlights how the success of smart card machines depends on the design and implementation of the regulatory mechanism behind the machines. In Minqin, quotas have successfully affected farmers’ groundwater use practices, whereas in Guazhou, water pricing has had little impact on farmers’ individual groundwater use practices. Moreover, the case of Minqin exemplifies that quotas enable equitable water access to all farmers and maintain the buffer function of conjunctive surface water and groundwater use. These are important principles to design effective groundwater regulation policies, both in and outside China.

Where modern heating and cooking fuels for domestic, institutional, commercial and industrial use are not readily available, briquettes made from biomass residues could contribute to the sustainable supply of energy. This study reviews the briquette making process, looking at the entire value chain starting from the type and characteristics of feedstock used for briquette making to the potential market for briquettes in developing countries. It also analyzes the role that gender plays in briquette production. Depending on the raw materials used and technologies applied during production, fuel briquettes come in different qualities and dimensions, and thus require appropriate targeting of different market segments. Key drivers of success in briquette production and marketing include ensuring consistent supply of raw materials with good energy qualities, appropriate technologies, and consistency in the quality and supply of the briquettes. Creating strong partnerships with key stakeholders, such as the municipality, financiers and other actors within the briquette value chain, and enabling policy are important drivers for the success of briquette businesses.

On-site sanitation systems, such as septic tanks and pit latrines, are the predominant feature across rural and urban areas in most developing countries. However, their management is one of the most neglected sanitation challenges. While under the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the set-up of toilet systems received the most attention, business models for the sanitation service chain, including pit desludging, sludge transport, treatment and disposal or resource recovery, are only emerging. Based on the analysis of over 40 fecal sludge management (FSM) cases from Asia, Africa and Latin America, this report shows opportunities as well as bottlenecks that FSM is facing from an institutional and entrepreneurial perspective.

Recovering energy from waste offers dual benefits a) improved waste management, and b) provision of reliable energy to households, institutions and commercial entities. In this report, we present a socioeconomic assessment of three energy business models (briquette manufacturing, on-site (public toilet) energy generation, and agro-waste electricity generation) based on feasibility studies carried out in the city of Kampala, Uganda. We assess the potential economic, environmental and social impacts of waste-to-energy business models taking into consideration a life cycle of emissions to provide decision makers with the overall costs and benefits of the models to society versus a business-as-usual scenario.

Biological treatment, composting, in particular, is a relatively simple, durable and inexpensive alternative for stabilizing and reducing biodegradable waste. Co-composting of different waste sources allows to enhance the compost nutrient value. In particular, integration of ‘biosolids’ from the sanitation sector as potential input material for co-composting would provide a solution for the much needed treatment of fecal sludge from on-site sanitation systems, and make use of its high nutrient content. This research paper elaborates in detail the main parameters that govern the co-composting process as well as factors that control the production of a safe and valuable quality compost. It further explains technological options to tailor the final product to crop and farmer needs.

Recycling and reuse of treated wastewater are an important part of the sanitation cycle and critical in an environment such as urban India with decreasing freshwater availability and increasing costs for delivering acceptable quality water, often from far distance. This report has been developed as a possible guidance document for the Indian government and gives substantial focus to the financial and economic benefits of wastewater recycling from the perspective of public spending. The report presents possible strategies for city and state planners and policymakers in view of the sanitation situation and the role of wastewater recycling in the larger cities in India (class I and II cities and towns with populations above 50,000), and focuses on recycling at the end of sewerage systems after treatment at sewage treatment plants.

The aim of the research project is to lift Afghanistan out of the identified knowledge gap on its water resources and therefore enable Afghanistan to remove her barrier to sustainable water resource development and management in the Amu Darya basin. At the same time it is anticipated to provide transparency of the potential impact of water resource development plans as well as of on-going projects to downstream riparian states as well as the donor community which so far seems to take an administrative rather than a resource boundary approach.The duration of the project is anticipated to be 3 years. Because of its international position IWMI Central Asia will take the lead in data generation and analysis and will collaborate with research and implementing agencies in Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.

Water infrastructure is a cornerstone of economic development. In the Zambezi River Basin huge investments have been made in dams for hydropower, irrigation, water supply and flood control. Ecosystem functions are central to outcomes from dams. Not only does the performance of dams depend on ecosystem functions but dams also modify them (e.g. by changing natural flow regimes). It is by changing ecosystem functions (and hence ecosystem services) that dams often have their greatest impact on the livelihoods of poor people. However, investment decisions and, subsequently the management of dams, rarely consider ecosystem functions. Trade-offs and synergies between dams and ecosystem functions often go unrecognized and, as a result, the benefits accruing from dams are typically sub-optimal. One reason for the failure to consider ecosystem functions is lack of understanding of them and how they translate into services for people. It is not clear which ecosystems perform which functions or how they will be affected by a dam. For example, whilst it is widely understood that in relation to hydrology, different ecosystems provide different regulating functions, there is little quantitative information on the extent to which they do this or the dynamic nature of such functions. If ecosystem functions, and specifically flow regulating functions, are to be considered in dam planning and management more information and a method to incorporate them into decision-making processes is required. Based on a literature review this report summarizes i) evidence of the flow regulating functions of the major ecosystems in the Zambezi basin and ii) methods for evaluating ecosystem flow regulating functions. Finally, it proposes an approach for developing a method that could contribute to a decision support system for the synchronization of dam operation in the basin.

In recent years, great emphasis has been placed on the need to improve the management of the environmental and social impacts of large dams. This is particularly important in the Mekong River Basin where the construction of a large number of new dams are planned and yet a large proportion of the population depend on fisheries and other natural resources, which may be adversely affected by their construction. The environmental and consequent social impacts of large dams are often complex and extremely difficult to predict. Dam planners and operators often have to consider a huge number of factors and often conflicting objectives, which makes decision making difficult. In such situations, computer models that can be used to simulate and optimize dam operations are a useful tool. However, to date, most models have focused on the physical aspects of systems and rarely (if ever) explicitly incorporate environmental and social issues. This report presents a brief review of different models and their application to water resource management, both in the Mekong and elsewhere and outlines a modelling strategy for the MK1 project.

In Lao PDR, one of the less developed countries, water represents a valuable natural resource via the development of hydropower dams and irrigation schemes. In the lower part of the Nam Ngum River Basin, the Vientiane plain is one of the largest food production areas of the country and the largest irrigated area in Lao PDR. While food demand is expected to continue to increase in the future, hydropower dams are under rapid development in the upper part of the basin, modifying the seasonal distribution of the river flow regimes. This study aims at assessing the current water supply and agricultural water demand in the Vientiane Plain and concluding whether the water resource is or may become a limiting factor for food production. The agricultural water demand is assessed from two types of data (characteristics of large-scale pumping stations and official statistics on irrigated areas) and using remote sensing analyses. Flow measurements of the Nam Ngum River were used to quantify the water supply. A 43-year time series (1962-2004) of daily river discharge was reconstructed from actual discontinuous data recorded in the river reach where most of the pumping stations are found. Distinctions in the water resource assessment were made between pristine conditions (before the construction of the hydropower dams) and current conditions of water infrastructure development. A comparison of the water supply and demand indicates that during the 4 driest months of the year (January to April) when the river reaches its minimum level and the irrigation water demand is the highest, pumped volumes represent less than 30% of the river discharge. This ratio should decrease as new hydropower dams are built, storing and releasing more water during the wet and the dry season, respectively. These figures indicate that the availability of water in the Nam Ngum River is not a limiting factor for irrigation, even during the dry seasons of exceptionally dry years. The water demand could exceptionally exceed the water supply in the case of an extreme scenario of irrigation development with irrigated areas 3-fold larger than the current ones. Next analyses will consist in assessing how this water balance will be altered by the development of new hydropower dams and irrigation projects. Possible uses of water surplus will be prioritized, depending on their economic viability and benefits.

This is the final report (2009-2011 June) of the RUAF-FSTT Programme for the South and South East Asia Region, coordinated by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), from its Regional Office in Hyderabad, India. The programme of activities were carried out in two cities, namely Magadi, Ramanagara District, India, and Gampaha, Sri Lanka from 2009 to June 2011, with an no-cost extension of six months, ending in year June 2011. This programme of activities came under IWMI’s theme on Water quality, Health and Environment.The programme was aimed at strengthening farmer organisations and their marketing capacities in urban/periurban settings, and developing sustainable urban farming systems that will contribute towards poverty alleviation, empowerment of disadvantaged and underserved groups in cities, enhance urban food security and social inclusion in development. The core activities were planned around two major components; 1. Operationalisation of a City Strategy Agenda (CSA), through a city multistakeholder forum (MSF) to promote Urban/Periurban Agriculture (UPA), which included diverse UPA activities and supported the shaping of policies to sustain UPA activities; 2. An innovation project that targeted low-income urban producers to innovate their farming practices from a market chain perspective, promoting eco-intensive agriculture based on ecological principals and maximum use of natural resources.

By affecting transpiration and evaporation and influencing how water is routed and stored in a basin, forests, wetlands and floodplains play a crucial role in the hydrological cycle. Although they are widely attributed a major role in regulating flows (i.e. both attenuating floods and maintaining flow during dry periods) these services are seldom, if ever, explicitly factored into the planning and management of water resources. One reason for the failure to include them is lack of understanding of the hydrological functions occurring, their dynamic nature, and the interaction of those functions with the catchments in which the ecosystems are located. Very often it is unclear exactly which functions are performed and how those functions change over time (i.e. between seasons and between years). Furthermore, both the lack of quantitative information and a recognized method to incorporate them into decision-making processes, make it very difficult to integrate natural hydrological functions into the planning and management of water resources. This report describes a pragmatic approach for quantifying the flow regulating functions of floodplains, headwater wetlands and forests in the Zambezi Basin. The method utilizes observed stream flow records and flow duration curves to derive a simulated time series of flow in the absence of the ecosystem. This can then be compared with an observed time series to evaluate the impact of the ecosystem on the flow regime. The method, which is easy to utilize and could easily be incorporated into a decision support system for the synchronization of dam operation, has been applied and results obtained for 16 locations in the basin. Results indicate that the different ecosystems affect flows in different and complex ways. Broadly: i) floodplains decrease flood flows and increase low flows; ii) headwater wetlands increase flood flows and decrease low flows; iii) miombo forest, when covering more than 70% of the catchment, decreases flood flows and decreases low flows. However, in all cases there are examples which produce contrary results and simple relationships between the extent of an ecosystem type within a catchment and the impact on the flow regime were not found.

For decades, increasing land productivity was a major driver of improving food security and reducing rural poverty. However, with increasing water scarcities, competing water demand across different sectors, and increasing cost of investments in water resources development require a paradigm shift. Improving the productivity of water use is emerging as a new way of addressing water scarcity while reducing vulnerability and improving income. Increasing both physical and economic water productivities (quantity per drop and value per drop) are central to this approach. The extent to which physical and economic water productivity should be improved is and area and context specific. However, the approach is especially important in areas that are populated with large agriculturally dependent small-holder rural people and areas that experience recurrent droughts and floods and lack access to proper infrastructure. A major part of the Ganga-Brahamaputra-Meghna (MBG) river basins have such characteristics. This report examines the current situation of poverty, food security and water productivity and their linkages and knowledge gaps in the MBG basins.

This report is an output of the Sustainable Urban Water Management Improves Tomorrow s City s Health (SWITCH) demonstration project, which took place in Accra, Ghana. Accra is one of the ten (10) demonstration cities under the SWITCH project. The main objective of the demo project was to demonstrate (as pilot) the potential of using urine for crop production in Accra Metropolitan Area (AMA) and provide recommendations for scaling up.

To identify interventions which reduce health risks of consumers where highly polluted irrigation water is used to irrigate vegetables in West Africa, scientists worked over 5 years with farmers, market traders and street food vendors in Ghana. The most promising low-cost interventions with high adoption potential were analyzed for their ability to reduce common levels of pathogens (counts of fecal coliforms and helminth eggs). The analysis showed the combination potential of various interventions, especially on-farm and during vegetable washing in line with the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. The tested market-based interventions were important to prevent new or additional contamination.

This CGIAR-CPWF Project was designed and conducted by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), in partnership with international and national partners, to address the relative neglect of livestock water needs of crop-livestock farming systems. The primary objective of this project was to optimize the productive use of water in the crop-livestock farming systems of semi-arid areas to enhance livelihoods, reduce poverty, contribute to gender equity, and protect the environment. This was addressed through an integrated approach led by a multi-disciplinary team across three States of the Ganga Basin.

The goal of Oxfam Americaapos;s Water Program in Ethiopia is to improve smallholders’ food security and strengthen their livelihoods in moisture-stressed areas of Oromiya, Tigray and Amhara National Regional States. To realize this goal, smallholder households must exercise their rights to access and manage water resources sustainably and equitably, for irrigating crops and raising livestock. Better access, equitable sharing, and sustainable management are essential outcomes that must be achieved along the path to greater food security and more resilient livelihoods.

Report submitted to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) under the project, “Comparative assessment of water usage and impacts arising from biofuel projects in South East Asian Countries”, commissioned by the Letter of Agreement No LOA/RAP/2009/38.Thailand and Malaysia are two south East Asian countries with rapidly growing biofuel demand. Increasing use of biofuel envisages reducing dependence of petroleum products for transport and mitigating environmental impacts by reducing carbon emissions. It also expects to contribute to rural development and poverty reduction. However, the impacts of expanding production of feedstock for biofuel on water supply are not well understood. This paper assesses the water footprints and impacts of sugarcane molasses and cassava based bioethanol in Thailand, and palm oil based biodiesel in Malaysia. The water footprint of a commodity or service is the water depleted in its life cycle of its production or consumption.The total water footprints of sugarcane molasses and cassava bioethanol production in Thailand are estimated to be 1,646 and 2,304 m3/tonne, respectively, and of palm oil biodiesel in Malaysia is 3,730 m3/tonne. However, the contributions from irrigation are only a small fraction --9.0, 0.7 and 0.3%-- of the total water footprints of molasses and cassava bioethanol, and palm oil biodiesel respectively. In terms of irrigation water use,cassava is a better feedstock for bioethanol production than sugarcane molasses.In Thailand, the total annual irrigation water footprints in bioethanol production --54 million m3 (mcm) for molasses and 15 mcm for cassava-- is only 0.02% of the total renewable water resources. In Malaysia, total annual irrigation water footprint of palm oil biodiesel production is only 0.001% of the total renewable water resources. A significant spatial variation of irrigation water footprints of molasses based ethanol exists across provinces in Thailand, indicating potential for reducing water footprints.The total irrigation water footprints in biofuel production in the future in both countries will also be negligible in comparison to total water availability. However, the impact of wastewater generated in the production processes can have significant impacts on quality of local water resources. A part of the waste water, called ‘spent wash’, is applied as fertilizer, and over use of it can affect soil and neighboring water resources. The proposed plans on biofuel production in the future can generate more ‘spent wash’ than that can be used in crop fields as fertilizer. Spent wash has found to have high PH value, temperature, biological and chemical oxygen contents etc. The usual practice of storing spent wash in a pond for a long period near a plant can have detrimental impact on soil, streams’ and groundwater quality.In sum, this study concludes that from the perspective of quantity of irrigation water use, the increasing biofuel production does not pose a major problem in Thailand

A project report submitted to Nestle Ltd. under the project “Measuring the water footprints of milk production: contributions to livelihood benefits and sustainable water use in the Moga District in Punjab, India.” This report assesses the water footprints of milk and crop production, their impacts and options of mitigating them. The major objectives of this report are: To assess water availability and use in agriculture in the Moga District of Punjab State, to examine the contribution of the different agricultural water uses to the over all unsustainable water extraction, and its impact on the WFP of milk and crops; To assess surface water and groundwater use of major crops (e.g., rice, wheat and fodder crops) and in milk production, with a focus on feed and fodder and direct water use for dairy cattle; and To propose improved water management practices that farmers can adopt to reduce WFP, and enhance water productivity and conservation, thus contributing to long-term sustainable water use in the region.

The report aims to provide critical input to the Mekong River Commission’s (MRC) regional Climate Change and Adaptation Initiative (CCAI) which was launched shortly after the formulation of this project. The CCAI is a collaborative regional initiative designed to address the shared climate change adaptation challenges of LMB countries in response to the potential effects of climate change on the socio-economic characteristics and natural resources of the LMB region. MRC has identified need for a more informed understanding of the potential impacts from climate change. To contribute to this aim, the purpose of this report is: 1. To present the framework of climate change analysis and its application to the Basin Development Plan (BDP) Scenarios; 2. To present the results from the application of the Decision Support Framework (DSF) models of the Mekong River Commission (MRC) in order to analyse the impacts of climate change and selected BDP Scenarios on flow regimes; 3. To present climate change impacts on floods and fisheries in the LMB; 4. To present the impact of climate change on the productivity of major crops grown in the basin and their consequences on the overall food security of the basin considering future population growth. 5. To present the results of applying simple adaptation strategies related to agriculture and food security; and 6. To determine further studies necessary to identify suitable adaptation strategies for dealing with such impacts.

Rainfall variability is a key constraint to agricultural production and economic growth in many developing countries. This is likely to be exacerbated in many places as rainfall variability is amplified (even where the total amount of rain increases) as a result of climate change. Changes in rainfall will also increase variability in groundwater recharge and river flow, thus affecting all water sources. Water storage, in its various forms, provides a mechanism for dealing with variability which, if planned and managed correctly, increases water security, agricultural productivity and adaptive capacity. As such, water storage can make an important contribution to safeguarding livelihoods and reducing rural poverty. However, ill-conceived water storage is a waste of financial resources and, rather than mitigate, may aggravate unpleasant climate change impacts. Systems that combine complementary storage options are likely to be more adaptable and acceptable than those based on a single storage type. More systematic planning and management is required to avoid the mistakes of the past and to ensure more effective and suitable storage systems for the future.

The purpose of this report is to show the process of the intervention made through the implementation of the IWRM and Food Security Demonstration Project in Zambia. The report gives details of the project processes, showing the steps the project went through, the outcomes and its impact on the communities where it was implemented. The report is the result of a number of field visits made to the completed project sites, the sources of information have been; focus group meetings, interviews, discussions with key informants, beneficiaries the youth, male and female stakeholders and reviews of project activity reports, and direct observations. Therefore, what is presented here is a cumulative “factual and real time” opinion as to what has been observed and discussed.; The Project was implemented over a period of two years in the three sites of the Kafue River Basin in the Central and Southern Provinces respectively. Katuba is at the Northern Bank of the Kafue River on the Mwembeshi River, a tributary of the Kafue River. Namwala is at the Southern Bank of the Kafue River, with Namwala River pouring its waters in the Kafue and meandering around the plains. The Kafue River Basin covers the Copper Belt Province in the North Western part of the country. Katuba is in Chibombo district and in the chiefdom of Mungule. In Namwala district, the project has been implemented in Mungaila and Mukobela Chiefdoms respectively. The report highlights some of the successes achieved by the intervention and some of the challenges faced by the target communities and recommends the way-forward to the sustainable management of water resources by the communities. The purpose of the project was to demonstrate the benefits of applying the IWRM principles and practices to reduce poverty and improve quality of life of the people through economic empowerment.

This report presents seven innovations in Local-level Integrated Water Resource Management, based on lessons learnt in the IWRM Demonstration Projects in Malawi, Mozambique, Swaziland and Zambia.

This project aims to identify the risks and benefits associated with the use of wastewater in urban and peri-urban fodder and vegetable cropping systems in India and Pakistan, where wastewater is largely untreated due to lack of public finance. Two mega-cities (Faisalabad, Pakistan and Hyderabad, India, with large untreated wastewater irrigation areas have been selected a) for comparative purposes and b) to develop and promote country-specific risk mitigation options. With a particular focus on food safety, livelihoods and livestock, the research will combine field and laboratory methods and structured interactions with producers, consumers, and authorities (urban planning, public health and water management). The goal of the project is to improve health and safeguard wastewater-dependent livelihoods of resource-poor urban and peri-urban farmers and consumers in developing countries. This overlaps with IWMI’s mission to improve water and land resources management for food, livelihoods and nature. The project’s purpose is to develop and promote the uptake of a set of risk mitigation options based on a comprehensive assessment of risks and benefits associated with wastewater irrigation in Hyderabad (India) and Faisalabad (Pakistan). The project will enable the uptake of the recommendations in two countries with large wastewater-irrigated areas and different political - institutional environments.

This atlas provides information on the salient findings of the project entitled quot;Ensuring Health and Food Safety from Rapidly Expanding Wastewater Irrigation in South Asiaquot; coordinated by the International Water Management Institute (Hyderabad office). The three year project funded by the German Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development (Bundesministerium fr Wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung - BMZ) was carried out in two countries, India and Pakistan, in collaboration with a number of international and local partners. This atlas highlights the findings from India. The atlas comprises thematic maps and their corresponding descriptions highlighting the key findings of the project. The wastewater use in agriculture described here is associated with a polluted riverine system, due to all types of city discharges. As such, it can be expected that the water quality can change considerably in different stretches of the 40 km stretch of the river, with the head end being more polluted than the tail end. Therefore in order to avoid a rigid classification, the descriptions to the maps refer to the term quot;(Musi) river waterquot;. In the rest of text, the term quot;wastewaterquot; is used in the context of the chemical and biological attributes associated with agronomic and health risks in any given stretch of the river. The atlas was prepared as a summary document of the key findings of the project, to promote a discussion on the wastewater use in agriculture, at the dissemination workshop held in October 2008.

This report documents the fourth year and final report of the RUAF-CFF programme in the South and South East Asia region, coordinated by the International Water Management Institute, Hyderabad office, India. It is arranged in three sections: Introduction, activities for the year 2008 and cumulative results of 2005 -2008. The overall content reflects the activates, outcomes and outputs of the four year RAFT-CFF programme.

These guidelines are based on the IWRM Demonstration Projects in Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Swaziland and Zambia, implemented by the SADC Regional Water Sector Programme supported by Danida, and synthesized by Barbara van Koppen. It provides a practical step-by-step guide on how to apply community-driven water resource management for improved livelihoods and sustainable water systems for multiple uses. The guideline is aimed at implementers of community water development projects, in particular the local government.

Recognising the importance of watershed development as a strategy of rural development, both central and state governments, non-governmental organisations, International Development Agencies invest huge funds on watershed development. The watershed approach enables the planners to internalize such externalities and other linkages among agricultural and related activities. Experience shows that various watershed development programme brought significant positive impact. Impact evaluations contribute to improve the effectiveness of policies and programs. Different methodologies have been used in the evaluation literature mainly the qualitative and quantitative methods. Choosing appropriate methodology for impact assessment of natural resource management interventions is essential. This bulletin outlines the various concepts and methods in watershed impact evaluation with examples. The use of economic surplus approach with consumer and producers’ surplus is compared with the conventional approach with only producers’ surplus. Also incorporation of the rainfall variability in the watershed evaluation is demonstrated. A simple computer based watershed programme incorporating the various components of the watershed development is also developed and included.

This is a report on the fourth and final year of the RUAF-CFF programme activities in West Africa Anglophone region, coordinated by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Ghana. This report documents the activities implemented as well as the results, outcomes and impacts in all focus cities within the region from January 2005 to December 2008. The cities are: a. Pilot cities: Accra, Ghana, Freetown, Sierra Leone, and Ibadan, Nigeria in sequential order of entry and intervention; b. Partner (or dissemination) cities: Tamale, Tema and Cape Coast in Ghana; and Akure in Nigeria, all at completion stages of pilot project implementation in their respective cities.

This project, based in the Great Ruaha River Basin in Tanzania, is looking at basin level water management impacts on agricultural productivity and wetlands. The main focus is to identify whether water currently going to rice production could be apos;savedapos; and reallocated for dry season environmental flows; and if so, how this could be done. Working with local partners and with UK-based institutions, the IWMI component focuses on the use of an integrated set of models to examine interactions between different water uses in the basin.

This study aims to systematically establish whether costs of irrigation projects in SSA are truly high, determine the factors which influence costs and recommend cost-reducing options in order make irrigation investments in SSA more attractive. The study analyzes 314 irrigation projects implemented from 1967 to 2003 in 50 countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America funded (or assisted) by the World Bank, African Development Bank and the International Fund for Agriculture Development. The sample includes “irrigation” projects, irrigation development with power generation (“irrigation with power”) projects, and irrigation component in multi-sectoral projects (MSPs). For the latter two types of project, only the cost of the irrigation component was included in the analyses. The study distinguishes projects according to purpose (ranging from purely new construction to purely rehabilitation), type of irrigation system (river diversion, reservoir-based, tank, river/groundwater-lift, and largely drainage or flood control), mode of Oamp;M (government managed, jointly managed, farmer-managed), and major crops irrigated. All data are obtained from project completion (PCRs) and performance audit reports (PPARs) complemented with information from staff appraisal reports. Unit irrigation costs and project performance measured by economic internal rates of return are actual figures reported in PPARs or PCRs. This report examines whether the difference in unit costs in sub-Saharan Africa compared with other regions is significant, and identifies the key determinants of unit investment costs and performance of irrigation projects. It makes three important contributions: (1) it confirms some earlier findings about irrigation projects; (2) it disproves some popularly-held notions and incorrect perceptions about unit costs and performance of irrigation projects in sub-Saharan Africa; and (3) it provides empirical support to some existing irrigation investment policies and programs and a basis for reconsideration of others and introduction of new ones. The report presents recommendations for formulating better irrigation projects and a clear investment direction in agricultural water in sub-Saharan Africa.

This paper focuses on enhancing returns on investments in agricultural water through effective integration of livestock production. It suggests that multi-sectoral approaches to investment in water, soil, crop and livestock will have greater development impact and profitability than developing water and livestock independently in the same areas.

This report analyses environmental and health impacts arising from agricultural water development in sub-Saharan Africa and recommends ways to increase the sustainability of investments in irrigation by taking into account health and environmental concerns. In many places in the region irrigation is a key means of enhancing productivity that can reduce poverty and improve livelihoods. However, failure to adequately foresee, plan and manage the negative environmental and health impacts arising from irrigation undermines the sustainability of many projects and may worsen poverty.This report is not intended as a compendium of data on environmental and health issues pertaining to agricultural water development. Rather it seeks to provide an overview and framework for understanding policy and programming issues to tackle these issues.

Manual produced under the IWMI financed project “Options for Increasing the Productivity of Harvested and Stored Rainwater for Smallholder Farmers in the Dry Area of Western Pare Lowlands”

Final report on the project, funded by US State Dept.

The framework reported here drives from the documentation and experiences gained under the SDC funded “Integrated Water Resources Management in the Fergana Valley Project (IWRM-Fergana), which is implemented by the association comprising the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and the Scientific Information Center of the Interstate Commission on Water Coordination (SIC-ICWC) of Central Asia.

IWMI-ADB Project

IWMI-ADB Project

IWMI-ADB Project

IWMI-ADB Project

The case studies reported here highlight important concepts and information on the linkages between water and poverty that may not be available elsewhere. The overall objective of the studies is to draw generic lessons and identify interventions that can help policy makers, planners and other stakeholders to develop actions that are effective in water resources management for the poor. All case studies focus on poor in South Asia, but all with differing geographic contexts or thematic focci. The first two papers are based on field surveys supplemented by literature reviews. The first focusses on the impact of water on poverty in a mountainous region in Nepal, while the second focusses on the impact of drought on water availability, and hence poverty, in a district in Pakistanapos;s Baluchistan province. The final two papers both took Sri Lanka as their area of study. The first Sri Lanka paper explores the linkages between water, health and poverty and presents a conceptual framework which was used to analyze the results of previous studies. Sri Lankaapos;s dry zone is the geographic focus of the second paper, which focusses primarily on the linkages between irrigation and poverty.

Regional study implemented by IWMI with financial support from the Asian Development Bank (RETA 5812)

Regional study implemented by IWMI with financial support from the Asian Development Bank (RETA 5812)

Regional study implemented by IWMI with financial support from the Asian Development Bank (RETA 5812)

Regional study implemented by IWMI with financial support from the Asian Development Bank (RETA 5812)

Regional study implemented by IWMI with financial support from the Asian Development Bank (RETA 5812)

Regional study implemented by IWMI with financial support from the Asian Development Bank (RETA 5812)

Regional study implemented by IWMI with financial support from the Asian Development Bank (RETA 5812)

A regional study implemented by IWMI wth financial support from ADB (RETA 5812).

A regional study implemented by IWMI wth financial support from ADB (RETA 5812).

A regional study implemented by IWMI wth financial support from ADB (RETA 5812).

In the Senegal river floodplain, irrigated agriculture and traditional flood recession crops (mainly sorghum) coexist. The latter depends upon the extent of the annual flood, which is partly a function of the amount of water released from the upstream Manantali reservoir. Even though recession sorghum yield is clearly smaller than that of irrigated rice, this production system, because it covers a large area, is a major contributor to total food production in Podor and Matam departments. It is therefore important to quantify areas and yields. In collaboration with the West Africa Rice Development Association (WARDA) and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), SAED has carried out a survey of the 2000-2001 agricultural campaign based on remote sensing and GIS analysis. In 2000, inundations in the Podor department covered 37.635 hectares. 3.277 million m3 of water were released from the Manantali reservoir specifically to support the natural flooding due to uncontrolled tributaries of the Senegal river. However, over the entire rainy season, the inflow into the reservoir exceeded the water released from it. In the Podor department, 18.998 hectares were cultivated, corresponding to 51% of the inundated area. In total, in both departments, the total area under sorghum cultivation amounted to 25.745 hectares in 2000-2001, that is only 44% of the area of the previous season, particularly wet. The total production of recession sorghum grain in the Matam department is about 4.075 tons and the average yield 638 kg/hectare. The method used gives reliable results, particularly a good relationship between yield and spectral response. It requires not more than 3 weeks of fieldwork but timing is crucial. Coupled with SAED’s Geographic Information System (GIS) and complementary to the survey of rice production using remote sensing analysis, this work provides a more accurate estimation of food production at the level of each Rural Community. It also provides objective information to assess the mutual influence of recession sorghum and irrigated rice cropping systems.

Report submitted to the Council of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering Research Center, Taoyuan Irrigation Research and Development Foundation, Environment Greening Foundation and Tsao-Jiin Memorial Foundation for Research and Development for Agriculture and Irrigation of the Republic of China.

The final report of this project documents the lessons learned by researchers, social organizers, agency personnel and farmers. The project has demonstrated the willingness and ability of farmers and agency personnel to manage the land and water resources of the area jointly. The view of the researchers is that the small dams offer an excellent opportunity for the promotion of reforms in the irrigation sector.