Building resilience in fragile and conflict-affected agrifood systems through a water-energy-food nexus approach Author(s): Al-Zu’bi, Maha; Daher, B.; Brouziyne, Youssef; Laamrani, H.; Melhem, D.; Greatrix, Emma; Ruckstuhl, Sandra; McCartney, Matthew; Anarbekov, Oyture; Sanchez Ramirez, Juan Carlos; Nicol, Alan Published year: 2023. Publisher(s): Cairo, Egypt: International Water Management Institute (IWMI). CGIAR Initiative on Fragility to Resilience in Central and West Asia and North Africa Pages: 8
Conflicts / Sustainable development / Risk / Political aspects / Capacity development / Data analysis / Innovation / Decision making / Investment / Financing / Governance / Stakeholders / Policies / Climate change / Nexus approaches / Food security / Energy / Water resources / Resilience / Agrifood systems Record No:H052309
Integrating open-source datasets to analyze the transboundary water–food–energy–climate nexus in Central Asia Author(s): De Keyser, J.; Hayes, D. S.; Marti, B.; Siegfried, T.; Seliger, C.; Schwedhelm, H.; Anarbekov, Oyture; Gafurov, Zafar; Lopez Fernandez, R. M.; Ramos Diez, I.; Alapfy, B.; Carey, J.; Karimov, B.; Karimov, E.; Wagner, B.; Habersack, H. Published year: 2023. Journal: Water Pages: 15(19):3482. (Special issue: Water Management in Central Asia)
In today’s intrinsically connected world, the Water–Food–Energy–Climate Nexus (WFEC Nexus) concept provides a starting point for informed and transparent decision-making based on the trade-offs and synergies between different sectors, including aquatic ecosystems, food security, energy production, and climate neutrality. The WFEC Nexus approach is particularly applicable in regions requiring transboundary water management, such as Central Asia. Unfortunately, this region with unevenly distributed water resources—consisting of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan—is characterized by data scarcity, which limits informed decision-making. However, open-source geodata is becoming increasingly available. This paper aims to fill Central Asia’s WFEC Nexus data gap by providing an overview of key data. We collected geodata through an integrated survey of stakeholders and researchers, stakeholder consultation, and literature screening. Sixty unique datasets were identified, belonging to one of six thematic categories: (1) climate, (2) hydrology, (3) geography and topography, (4) geomorphology, (5) ecology, and (6) anthropogenic uses. For each dataset, a succinct description, including a link to the online source, is provided. We also provide possible applications of using the presented datasets, demonstrating how they can assist in conducting various studies linked to the WFEC Nexus in Central Asia and worldwide.
Anthropogenic factors / Ecology / Geomorphology / Biodiversity / Hydropower / Geographical information systems / Spatial data / Datasets / Open data / Nexus approaches / Climate change / Energy generation / Food security / Transboundary waters Record No:H052318
The AGRUMIG project was a comparative analysis of experiences from Europe, Asia and Africa, and explored the impact of migration on the trajectory of agricultural change in rural areas. This brief reviews the findings of our seven-country study. The research focused on 19 remittance-dependent communities in seven countries: China, Ethiopia, Moldova, Nepal, Kyrgyzstan, Morocco and Thailand.
Women / Gender / Agriculture / Policies / Remittances / Investment / Farmers / Communities / Households / Livelihoods / Rural development / Labour / Governance / Migration Record No:H052213
The purpose of this policy brief is to draw together key comparative lessons on different types of migration governance interventions in the AGRUMIG project research regions and examine how they support positive feedback loops between migration and agrarian and rural development. This exploration offers stories of success and omission. Moving beyond the elusive triple-win situation on the benefits of migration for destination and origin countries, migrants themselves and the highly politicized domain of the migration-development nexus, our point of departure is that there are vital prospects for augmenting the positive impacts of migration for societies globally. This brief focuses on how migration governance interventions are potentially useful in maximizing the gains between migration and agrarian development in the sending communities in China, Ethiopia, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Morocco, Nepal and Thailand.
Communities / Political aspects / Financing / Monitoring and evaluation / Impact assessment / Training / Employment / Policies / Rural development / Agrarian structure / Migrant labour / Governance / Migration Record No:H052005
Study region: The Amu Darya River (ADR) basin in Central Asia.
Study focus: To understand the spatiotemporal patterns and underlying driving mechanisms of river salinization in arid environments, this study gathered 50 years (1970–2019) of water chemistry data from 12 locations along the ADR. The variations in discharge and salinity were assessed by a linear regression model and violin plot. The salinity-discharge relationships were evaluated by a general hyperbolic model and Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient. Random forest models were also constructed to identify the predominant drivers of river water salinization. Finally, a conceptual model of river water salinization was constructed.
New hydrological insights for the region: The water salinity (S) in the upper stream of the ADR was 541–635 mg/L. Salinity showed an increasing trend along the river course, reaching 751–1560 mg/L downstream. In the downstream, the river salinity before the 1990 s (751–1128 mg/L) was slightly lower than that after the 1990 s (983–1560 mg/L). Generally, water salinity was notably correlated with river discharge (Q) in upstream, exhibiting a relationship of S= 17,497Q- 0.62, p lt; 0.05, before the 1990 s. Interannual variation in river salinity is mainly controlled by secondary salinization, and intra-annual variation is controlled by river flow. From upstream to downstream, the controlling salinization process changes from primary salinization to secondary salinization. Specifically, secondary salinization has accelerated due to intensified agricultural activities in recent years.
Development trends in Kyrgyzstan include declining agricultural production, a steady increase in remittances to rural areas from labor migration and an increasing role for the non-agricultural sector in the rural economy. These trends suggest that labor migration is having a transformative effect, with significant opportunities for rural development, but also challenges ahead. Even though migration has a huge impact on the country’s economy (remittances account for some 30% of the country’s GDP), to date migration governance focuses mainly on the rights protection of migrants and does nothing about sending communities and rural development policy. The attractiveness of rural villages for return migration and the well-being of those left-behind should be a major focus for migration policy along with the inclusion of migration as cross-cutting issue in rural development policy at all levels.
Agriculture / Households / Rural development / Policies / Labour / Governance / Migration Record No:H052218
Many studies indicate that labor migration is the main economic survival strategy for all population groups in Kyrgyzstan, but especially young people. Migration affects rural schools in several ways. Young people are not interested in fully completing their secondary education, and after the 9th grade, many drop out of school and start looking for jobs. This problem is compounded by the shortage of school teachers in the country. According to the Ministry of Education and Science of the Kyrgyz Republic, teaching vacancies in subjects such as computer science, English, biology, chemistry, mathematics and physical education have not been filled for years in many schools. Recent university graduates are not interested in filling these vacancies as labor migration offers a more favorable way of entering the labor market.
This migration of the working age population can, however, have a negative impact on left-behind children, worsening their academic performance. National Assessment of the Educational Achievements for grad school students (NOODU) data show that students’ performance at schools differs markedly between children whose parents are labour migrants outside of the country and their peers whose parents remain with them. The former often have the worst performances in schools. This is mostly because left behind children, mostly teens, have to fill the labour shortage in the household.
The multidimensional impacts of labor mobility are therefore closely intertwined and reflected in problems felt within the school system (lack of teachers and poor academic performance of migrant children). This can cause long-term negative impacts on education. However, despite the scale of labor migration, very little has been done to understand how rural schools cope with these challenges. This policy brief aims to raise stakeholder awareness of the impact of labor migration on the institution of secondary education in rural communities with active migration outflows, and offers key recommendations for further actions and interventions.
Governance / Policies / Infrastructure / Stakeholders / Communities / Rural areas / Schools / Labour / Mainstreaming / Children / Migrants / Migration Record No:H052219
Soil salinity negatively affects plant growth and leads to soil degradation. Saline lands result in low agricultural productivity, affecting the well-being of farmers and the economic situation in the region. The prediction of soil salinization dynamics plays a crucial role in sustainable development of agricultural regions, in preserving the ecosystems, and in improving irrigation management practices. Accurate information through monitoring and evaluating the changes in soil salinity is essential for the development of strategies for agriculture productivity and efficient soil management. As part of an ex-ante analysis, we presented a comprehensive statistical framework for predicting soil salinity dynamics using the Homogeneity test and linear regression model. The framework was operationalized in the context of the Khorezm region of Uzbekistan, which suffers from high levels of soil salinity. The soil salinity trends and levels were projected under the impact of climate change from 2021 to 2050 and 2051 to 2100. The results show that the slightly saline soils would generally decrease (from 55.4% in 2050 to 52.4% by 2100 based on the homogeneity test; from 55.9% in 2050 to 54.5% by 2100 according to the linear regression model), but moderately saline soils would increase (from 31.2% in 2050 to 32.5% by 2100 based on the homogeneity test; from 31.2% in 2050 to 32.4% by 2100 according to the linear regression model). Moreover, highly saline soils would increase (from 13.4% in 2050 to 15.1% by 2100 based on the homogeneity test; from 12.9% in 2050 to 13.1% by 2100 according to the linear regression model). The results of this study provide an understanding that soil salinity depends on climate change and help the government to better plan future management strategies for the region.
Soil chemicophysical properties / Irrigated land / Meteorological stations / Air temperature / Nexus approaches / Food production / Energy / Water resources / Forecasting / Soil salinization / Climate change / Assessment / Soil salinity Record No:H051303
There is wide consensus among scholars and practitioners that improved irrigation technologies increase farm productivity and improve resource use efficiency. However, there is also growing empirical evidence that efficiency improvements in irrigation water use may create rebound effects, i.e., they may trigger changes in farmers’ behavior that partly or fully offset the technical water savings expected under ceteris paribus conditions. In extreme cases, total water consumption may even increase. We studied the impacts of introducing water-saving irrigation technologies in Uzbekistan and used structured stakeholder interviews for an expert-based assessment of potential rebound effects. Our findings contribute to the understanding of impacts of technological and institutional responses to environmental and economic pressures in sustaining water resources. The study demonstrates that although the objective of increasing irrigation efficiency may be achieved, the actual water savings under Uzbek conditions are likely to be reduced due to rebound effects. Unless there are effective policy interventions, we expect rebound effects through an increase in water supply for crops that compensates for current shortages of irrigation water availability, an increase in irrigated area, a switch to more water-intensive crops, and overall economic growth. The findings of this paper provide a reference point for estimating the water-saving potential and for evaluating and adapting policies.
Farmers / Gross national product / Policies / Economic growth / Irrigation water / Irrigated land / Water deficit / Water demand / Water availability / Irrigation systems / Water use efficiency / Irrigation efficiency / Nexus approaches / Food production / Energy / Water resources / Sustainability / Technology / Water conservation / Stakeholders / Rebound effects / Irrigated farming Record No:H051302
Regional developments: Central Asia Author(s): Akramov, K.; Djumaboev, Kakhramon; Romashkin, R. Published year: 2022. Pages: pp.124-127 Series: Global Food Policy Report
Central Asia section of Global food policy report highlights regional developments, climate change and its impact on food systems in terms of water use in the region. Moreover, provides options for crop diversification to mitigate malnutrition and role of water saving technologies for adapting climate change impacts.
Policies / Technology / Irrigation / Water scarcity / Water conservation / Water resources / Diversification / Crop yield / Food systems / Climate change Record No:H051162
Viewpoint: irrigation water management in a space age Author(s): Hafeez, Mohsin; Awan, Usman Khalid Published year: 2022. Journal: Irrigation and Drainage Pages: 71(S1):39-50. (Special issue: Achieving Climate Resilience through Improved Irrigation Water Management from Farm to Basin Scale)
Climate change and rapid population growth are already putting increasing demand and pressure on the worldapos;s freshwater resources. Irrigated agriculture is responsible for about 70% of global freshwater withdrawals, consuming the most amount of water. However, the diverted water in irrigation systems is often not utilized efficiently because of poor water management at different spatial scales, resulting in a system efficiency of only 30–50% in most Asian countries. Typically, improving water management in irrigated areas requires accurate information on various water balance parameters while also considering a changing climate across different spatial scales. There have been technical limitations in getting accurate and reliable information on various key water balance parameters with the conventional approaches used in the recent past. In the twenty-first century, considerable advances have been made in using satellite imagery, including processing and geospatial algorithms, to estimate hydro-meteorological fluxes and relevant components at different spatial scales. This paper provides a perspective on the application of innovative and non-conventional approaches to water resources management in the Murray Darling basin, Australia, the Indus basin, Pakistan and the Amu Darya basin, Uzbekistan. Examples of the state-of-the-art tools described in this paper include: (i) using geoinformatics to monitor the diagnostic and operational performance of large irrigation schemes; (ii) quantifying groundwater and surface water to better manage these two resources using geoinformatics; (iii) forecasting irrigation supply and demand at high spatial and temporal scales using hydrological modelling based on the nodal network; (iv) forecasting crop yield production by satellite remote sensing. The approaches in this study clearly demonstrate that new monitoring and planning tools and methods are highly effective in improving irrigation water management in the ‘space age’ (for the purposes of this paper, space age refers to a period in which earth observation satellites are available to accurately monitor agricultural practices and water balance parameters such as soil moisture and evapotranspiration). The application of these innovative tools can assist in strategizing, diagnosing, monitoring and improving the performance of irrigation systems to grow more crop per drop of water while minimizing environmental impacts and dealing with climate change impacts.
Remote sensing / Soil moisture / Precipitation / Evapotranspiration / Irrigation schemes / River basins / Groundwater / Irrigation efficiency / Climate change / Water resources / Water management / Irrigation water Record No:H051022
EU supports small hydropower in Central Asia Author(s): Jorde, K.; Alapfy, B.; Schwedhelm, H.; Siegfried, T.; Habersack, H.; De Keyser, J.; Hayes, D. S.; Purushottam, A.; Schneider, M.; Anarbekov, Oyture Published year: 2022. Journal: International Journal on Hydropower and Dams Pages: 29(5):52-59
Through the innovation project ‘Hydro4U’, the European Union (EU) under its Horizon 2020 funding scheme is funding the development and optimization of sustainable and practical technologies, planning methods and assessment tools in the area of small-scale hydropower with the primary goal to enhance their application in Central Asia. Thirteen partners, from the EU and from Central Asia, scientific institutions, consultants, industry partners and NGOs are collaborating over a period of five years to generate a sustainable impact on Central Asia by finding new ways to deal with the challenges that normally arise with hydropower development, covering technical, ecological, economic and social aspects.
Sustainability / Ecological factors / Planning / Hydrology / Funding / European Union / Hydropower Record No:H051661
The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly changed the context of global migration. From a migration perspective, the pandemic is a source of insecurities that challenge migrants, their livelihoods and migration governance. Meanwhile, curtailment in movement has led to economic decline affecting labour markets. For migrant origin and hosting countries, this poses multidimensional development challenges. Analysis from March to August 2020 of China, Ethiopia, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Morocco, Nepal and Thailand highlights the varying ways in which they are all severely affected by the disruptions in migration, suggesting a potentially emerging complex situation in migration patterns and pathways. The disruptions in migration and remittances have had a profound impact on migrants and migrant-sending households. The uncertainty of migration returning to pre-pandemic levels and the potential of lasting consequences on migrants and migration patterns and pathways, suggests a future of greater risk and exploitation, and a wider gap between formal and informal migration. This paper calls for greater mobility cooperation between countries and suggests strengthening mobility migration frameworks and policies for safer migration and for the rights of migrants.
IWMI Annual report 2020 Author(s): International Water Management Institute (IWMI). Published year: 2021. Publisher(s): Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI) Pages: 62
Kyrgyzstan is one of the most remittancedependent countries in the world.1 Remittance inflows to this low-income country have remained a key contributor to the country’s GDP over the past decade. Migration labor outflows continue to play a significant role in sustaining the Kyrgyz domestic economy. Due to the fact that Russia and the Central Asian region share a common history, cultural links, and lingua franca, the Russian market remains a popular destination for CA migrants.2 In 2019, almost 98% of Kyrgyz intra-family financial transfers came from the Russian Federation.3 However, the global coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic has severely affected remittance flows to low and middle-income countries (LMICs) generally, and remittancedependent economies such as Kyrgyzstan have found themselves deeply vulnerable during different international events, including the financial crisis of 2008 and the current pandemic. To become more resilient, the Kyrgyzstan economy needs thorough reform that can improve the domestic job market and create more effective economic incentives that can decrease dependence on remittances and migration labor outflows, particularly in rural Kyrgyzstan.
Households / Women / Gender / Livestock / Agriculture / Policies / Remittances / Uncertainty / COVID-19 / Labour / Governance / Migration Record No:H052220
Uncertainty / Social protection / Policies / Governance / Rural communities / Households / Women / Female labour / Pandemics / COVID-19 / Migration Record No:H052221
Heat units-based potential yield assessment for cotton production in Uzbekistan Author(s): Montanaro, G.; Nangia, V.; Gowda, P.; Mukhamedjanov, S.; Mukhamedjanov, A.; Haddad, M.; Yuldashev, Tulkun; Wu, W. Published year: 2021. Journal: International Journal of Agricultural and Biological Engineering Pages: 14(6):137-144
Cotton yields in Uzbekistan are significantly lower than those in similar agro-climatic regions, requiring the estimation of crop potential and baseline yield to track progress of production enhancement efforts. The current study estimated potential cotton development and baseline yield (maximum given no production constraints) using total heat units (THU) and potential cotton yield (PCY), respectively. Calculations were based on heat units (HU) for a 30-year (1984-2013) period. Long-term average THU and PCY, as well as PCY at three different exceedance probabilities (p=0.99, p=0.80, and p=0.75), were calculated for 21 selected weather stations across cotton-growing areas of Uzbekistan. After confirmation that the current planting date (April 15) is optimal, a comparison of THU with the accepted cotton production cutoff threshold (1444C) suggested that areas with lower elevations and latitudes are more appropriate for cotton production. Yield gap analysis (relative difference between long-term average PCY and actual yields) confirmed that Uzbekistan cotton production is below potential, while the spatial distribution of yield gaps outlined where efforts should be targeted. Areas near the stations of Nukus, Kungrad, Chimbay, and Syrdarya should be further investigated as benefit/cost ratio is highest in these areas. A comparison between state-set yield targets and PCY values, taking into account climatic variability, suggested that all areas except Jaslyk, Nurata, and Samarkand have safe, appropriate targets. These results present a starting-point to aid in strategic actions for Uzbekistan cotton production improvement.
Agriculture / Climate variability / Heat units / Assessment / Yield potential / Yield gap / Crop yield / Crop production / Cotton Record No:H050907
IWMI Annual report 2019 Author(s): International Water Management Institute (IWMI). Published year: 2020. Publisher(s): Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI) Pages: 60
This report presents a spatial analysis conducted at global scale to identify areas of high suitability for implementing the Underground Transfer of Floods for Irrigation (UTFI) approach. The study used multiple global spatial datasets, and the related data were arranged under three categories – water supply, water demand and water storage – to assess global UTFI suitability. Among the river basins with high suitability, the Awash in Ethiopia, Ramganga in India (one of the major tributaries of the Ganges River Basin) and Chao Phraya in Thailand were selected for the economic analysis in this study. The results from this study are intended to provide a first step towards identifying the broad areas (at the river basin or country scale) where more detailed investigation would be worthwhile to ascertain the technical and economic feasibility of UTFI, with greater confidence.
Models / Rural areas / Urban areas / Socioeconomic environment / Monsoon climate / Rain / Land use / Crop production / Pumps / Wells / Infrastructure / Groundwater irrigation / Stakeholders / Policies / Food security / Water security / Climate change / Water availability / Surface water / Water management / Water resources / Watershed management / Ecosystem services / Mitigation / Disaster risk reduction / Flood control / Benefit-cost ratio / Cost benefit analysis / Economic analysis / Drought / Water demand / Water supply / Water storage / Aquifers / Groundwater recharge / River basins / Flood irrigation Record No:H050008
While water security is widely regarded as an issue of global significance and concern, there is not yet a consensus on a methodology for evaluating it. The difficulty in operationalizing the concept comes from its various interpretations and characteristics at different spatial and temporal scales. In this paper, we generate a dashboard comprised of 52 indicators to facilitate a rapid assessment of a country’s water security and to focus the first step of a more comprehensive water security diagnostic assessment. We design the dashboard around a conceptualization of water security that builds upon existing framings and metrics. To illustrate its usefulness, we apply the dashboard to a case study of Pakistan and a regional cross-country comparative analysis. The dashboard provides a rapid view of the water security status, trends, strengths, and challenges for Pakistan. The cross-country comparative analysis tentatively identifies relationships between indicators such as water stress and the transboundary dependency ratio, with countries exhibiting high values in both variables being especially vulnerable to transboundary water risk. Overall, this dashboard (1) provides quantitative information on key water-related variables at the country level in a consistent manner and (2) helps to design and focus more in-depth water security diagnostic studies.
Groundwater / Trends / Gross national product / Environmental effects / Socioeconomic environment / International waters / Sustainable Development Goals / Water stress / Water resources / Case studies / Databases / Indicators / Evaluation / Water security Record No:H049944
This article reviews the negative impact of anthropogenic changes on groundwater. The main changes in physical and geographical conditions that occur under the impact of anthropogenic pressures and that have the most significant influence on the state of groundwater, as well as a negative impaction the conditions of the formation of groundwater are: changes in the landscape caused by agricultural works, mining, construction of settlements, etc.; changes in the hydrographic network caused the construction of hydroelectric power facilities; changes in the composition of the atmospheric air; changes in the groundwater level regime, climatic conditions. The most significant factor of change in groundwater formation conditions is the progressive anthropogenic pollution of groundwater. It negatively influences the number of resources and their quality.
River basins / Indigenous knowledge / Information systems / Water user associations / Nexus / Energy / Food security / Sustainable Development Goals / Institutional reform / Water governance / Water policy / Water institutions / Water management / Water resources / Integrated management Record No:H049421
Between a rock and a hard place: early experience of migration challenges under the Covid-19 pandemic Author(s): Nicol, Alan; Abdoubaetova, A.; Wolters, A.; Kharel, A.; Murzakolova, A.; Gebreyesus, A.; Lucasenco, E.; Chen, F.; Sugden, F.; Sterly, H.; Kuznetsova, I.; Masotti, M.; Vittuari, M.; Dessalegn, Mengistu; Aderghal, M.; Phalkey, N.; Sakdapolrak, P.; Mollinga, P.; Mogilevskii, R.; Naruchaikusol, S. Published year: 2020. Publisher(s): Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI) Pages: 22 Series: IWMI Working Paper 195
This working paper was produced under the European Union Horizon 2020 funded AGRUMIG project and traces the impact of Covid-19 on migration trends in seven project countries – China, Ethiopia, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Morocco, Nepal and Thailand.
The context of global migration has changed dramatically due to the coronavirus pandemic. Both within and between countries there has been a substantial curtailment of movement. As a result of multiple lockdowns, economic activity has severely declined and labor markets have ground to a halt, with mass unemployment in industrialized economies looming on the horizon. For both migrant hosting and origin countries – some are substantially both – this poses a set of complex development challenges.
Partners of the AGRUMIG project undertook a rapid review of impacts across project countries, exploring the impacts on rural households but also identifying the persistent desire to migrate in spite of restrictions.
Uncertainty / Assessment / Policies / Border closures / Travel restrictions / Quarantine / Governance / State intervention / Rural areas / Households / Food supply / Social inequalities / Poverty / Economic activities / Remittances / Income / Health hazards / Livelihoods / Unemployment / Migrant labour / Labour market / Pandemics / COVID-19 / Migration Record No:H050125
Surface water resources Author(s): Djumaboev, Kakhramon; Anarbekov, Oyture; Holmatov, B.; Hamidov, A.; Gafurov, Zafar; Murzaeva, Makhliyo; Susnik, J.; Maskey, S.; Mehmood, H.; Smakhtin, V. Published year: 2020. Pages: pp.25-38 Series: Earthscan Series on Major River Basins of the World
Riparian zones / Flow discharge / Rivers / Precipitation / Temperature / Infrastructure / Irrigated farming / Water use / Anthropogenic factors / Climate change / Observation / Hydrometeorology / Surface water / Water resources development Record No:H049380
Potato is a very important cash crop in Uzbekistan as the government has implemented several measures to increase its production to meet food security as well as to improve its export potential. However, irrigation water demand of potato is much higher than for other crops such as sorghum and maize, which normally consume less water and generate more income. Furrow irrigation is the main irrigation method used to grow potato in Uzbekistan. Introduction of improved irrigation methods could reduce the water used for potato production and provide alternative solutions to improving potato production and income security under water scarce conditions. There are few comparative studies on conventional furrow versus improved irrigation methods for potato production.
This paper explores water productivity of two varieties of potato under four irrigation treatments in Andijan and Ferghana regions of Uzbekistan. At each location, four different irrigation treatments were evaluated. These four treatments were: conventional furrow irrigation (CFI), high frequency furrow irrigation (HFI), partial root zone drying irrigation (PRD), and drip irrigation (DrI). The experimental sites in each study area were established in 2012 on farmer fields. Data on water used and agronomic performance were collected from both study sites to calculate water productivity for each treatment. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to identify differences in treatments. The results indicate that, overall, high frequency furrow irrigation and drip irrigation treatments performed better than conventional furrow irrigation and partial root drying treatments.
Research findings from this paper are useful for relevant stakeholders in Uzbekistan whose population is highly dependent on irrigated agriculture. Existing water use policies in Uzbekistan do not provide water users incentives for water saving as water delivery for agriculture is highly subsidized by the government resulting in excessive water use. These findings may help reduce unsustainable water use by increasing knowledge of relevant stakeholders including decision makers in order to improve water policies in the region.
Crop yield / Water policy / Water use efficiency / Irrigation water / Drip irrigation / Furrow irrigation / Techniques / Irrigation methods / Potatoes / Crop production / Water productivity Record No:H049332
Potato is a very important cash crop in Uzbekistan as the government has implemented several measures to increase its production to meet food security as well as to improve its export potential. However, irrigation water demand of potato is much higher than for other crops such as sorghum and maize, which normally consume less water and generate more income. Furrow irrigation is the main irrigation method used to grow potato in Uzbekistan. Introduction of improved irrigation methods could reduce the water used for potato production and provide alternative solutions to improving potato production and income security under water scarce conditions. There are few comparative studies on conventional furrow versus improved irrigation methods for potato production.
This paper explores water productivity of two varieties of potato under four irrigation treatments in Andijan and Ferghana regions of Uzbekistan. At each location, four different irrigation treatments were evaluated. These four treatments were: conventional furrow irrigation (CFI), high frequency furrow irrigation (HFI), partial root zone drying irrigation (PRD), and drip irrigation (DrI). The experimental sites in each study area were established in 2012 on farmer fields. Data on water used and agronomic performance were collected from both study sites to calculate water productivity for each treatment. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to identify differences in treatments. The results indicate that, overall, high frequency furrow irrigation and drip irrigation treatments performed better than conventional furrow irrigation and partial root drying treatments.
Research findings from this paper are useful for relevant stakeholders in Uzbekistan whose population is highly dependent on irrigated agriculture. Existing water use policies in Uzbekistan do not provide water users incentives for water saving as water delivery for agriculture is highly subsidized by the government resulting in excessive water use. These findings may help reduce unsustainable water use by increasing knowledge of relevant stakeholders including decision makers in order to improve water policies in the region.
Water policy / Techniques / Furrow irrigation / Irrigation methods / Potatoes / Crop production / Water productivity Record No:H049331
Global discourses have advocated womenapos;s empowerment as a means to enhance food security. Our objective was to critically review the causal linkages between womenapos;s empowerment and food availability and access. We relied on mixed methods and a cross-country analysis, using household survey data from Bangladesh, Nepal and Tajikistan and qualitative data from Nepal. The quantitative analysis highlights the diversity of patterns linking empowerment and food security indicators and the roles socio-economic determinants play in shaping these patterns across countries. The qualitative analysis further stresses the need for a truly intersectional approach in food security programmes that supports challenging the structural barriers that keep marginalised men and women food insecure. Lastly, our findings call for informing standardised measures of empowerment with an assessment of local meanings and values.
Strategies / Decision making / Social structure / Socioeconomic environment / Household consumption / Indicators / Malnutrition / Food shortages / Food access / Food supply / Empowerment / Women farmers / Gender / Food security Record No:H049254
Accurate assessment of the soil salinization is an important step for mitigation of agricultural land degradation. Remote sensing (RS) is widely used for salinity assessment, but knowledge on prediction precision is lacking. A RS-based salinity assessment in Khorezm allows for modest reliable prediction with weak (R2=0.15–0.29) relationship of the salinity maps produced with RS and interpolation of electromagnetic EM38 during growth periods and more reliable (R2=0.35–0.56) beyond irrigation periods. Modeling with HYDRUS-1D at slightly, moderately and highly saline sites at various depths showed that irrigation forces salts to move to deeper layers: salts reappear in the upper profile during dry periods. Beyond irrigation events, salts gradually accumulated in the upper soil layers without fluctuations. Coupling RS techniques with numerical modeling provided better insight into salinity dynamics than any of these approaches alone. This should be of interest to farmers and policy makers since the combination of methods will allow for better planning and management.
Case studies / Cotton / Irrigated farming / Groundwater / Soil profiles / Techniques / Forecasting / Modelling / Remote sensing / Irrigated land / Soil salinization Record No:H049745
Water in the Hindu Kush Himalaya Author(s): Scott, C. A.; Zhang, F.; Mukherji, A.; Immerzeel, W.; Mustafa, D.; Bharati, Luna; Zhang, H.; Albrecht, T.; Lutz, A.; Nepal, S.; Siddiqi, A.; Kuemmerle, H.; Qadir, M.; Bhuchar, S.; Prakash, A.; Sinha, R. Published year: 2019. Pages: pp.257-299
Decision making / International cooperation / International waters / Environmental flows / Ecosystems / Urbanization / Contaminants / Sanitation / Drinking water / Plains / Mountains / Lowland / Groundwater management / Water institutions / Water governance / Water pollution / Water quality / Water use / Water springs / Sedimentation / Flow discharge / River basin management / Precipitation / Water availability Record No:H049103
The advantages of a nexus approach in addressing complex environmental challenges are becoming increasingly clear. In Central Asia, however, the nexus between water–food–energy has not received adequate attention, as the very few studies that have been conducted fell short of quantifying nexus trade-offs and benefits at a practical, small scale. This paper applies a quantitative accounting method to assess water and energy use intensity in irrigated areas of the Karshi Steppe of Central Asia that are supplied by pumping water uphill (lift-irrigated) from the underlying river. The results indicated that the potential water and energy savings as well as the greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reductions could be achieved by applying an optimal planning deficit irrigation schedule simulated using CROPWAT 8. Some 575 MCM (million cubic metres) of water and 259 GWh of electricity can be saved, while the CO2 equivalent emissions can be reduced by almost 122 000 t. Achieving these savings requires a mix of technical and policy components. This paper describes an example of proper irrigation planning as a tool for water/energy savings and consequent reduction of CO2 emissions.
Case studies / Farmers / River basins / Steppes / Irrigation scheduling / Pumps / Emission reduction / Carbon / Greenhouse gases / Energy conservation / Energy consumption / Water requirements / Water conservation / Water use / Irrigated land Record No:H049085
Environmental effects / Social costs / Private farms / Farmers / Water supply / Water authorities / Groundwater / Water pricing / Agriculture / Irrigation water / Literature reviews / Cost recovery / River basins / Water use efficiency Record No:H049444
This report has been prepared in accordance with the objectives of activity 7.5 - supporting river basin organizations in conducting an economic analysis of water use and the application of full cost recovery principles; in developing financial and economic incentives for water conservation and improvement of water productivity in rural areas of the Component No. 1: “National Framework Concept for Water Management and Integrated Water Resources Management” of the European Union Program of “Sustainable Water Management in Rural Areas of the Republic of Uzbekistan”.
Data collection and analysis were carried out in 2017, and the report was printed in 2019. Most statistics were provided before December 31, 2017. The data were obtained from statistical collections, as well as from the annual reports of the BISA and MKM.
Socioeconomic environment / Rural areas / Farm income / Agricultural production / Irrigated farming / Sustainability / Water user associations / Economic value / Water supply / River basins / Water management / Water resources / Estimation / Financing / Cost benefit analysis / Cost recovery / Maintenance / Irrigation systems Record No:H049443
This report has been prepared in accordance with the objectives of activity 7.5 - supporting river basin organizations in conducting an economic analysis of water use and the application of full cost recovery principles; in developing financial and economic incentives for water conservation and improvement of water productivity in rural areas of the Component No. 1: “National Framework Concept for Water Management and Integrated Water Resources Management” of the European Union Program of “Sustainable Water Management in Rural Areas of the Republic of Uzbekistan”.
Data collection and analysis were carried out in 2017, and the report was printed in 2019. Most statistics were provided before December 31, 2017. The data were obtained from statistical collections, as well as from the annual reports of the BISA and MKM.
Socioeconomic environment / Rural areas / Farm income / Agricultural production / Irrigated farming / Sustainability / Water user associations / Economic value / Water supply / River basins / Water management / Water resources / Estimation / Financing / Cost benefit analysis / Cost recovery / Maintenance / Irrigation systems Record No:H049442
Biodiversity / Ecosystems / Land resources / Risk analysis / Natural disasters / Irrigation systems / Agricultural development / Strategies / Stakeholders / Socioeconomic environment / Rural areas / Water quality / Water use / Water supply / Drinking water / Groundwater / Planning / Development policies / Water governance / Legal frameworks / Sustainability / Integrated management / Water management / Water resources / River basin development Record No:H049426
The aim of this paper is to analyze the effect of irrigation delivery services and agricultural extension services on crop choice in southern Tajikistan. This analysis is motivated by the government’s recent efforts to address the country’s severe malnutrition problem by supporting changes in irrigation service delivery and agronomy to increase diversity in agricultural production and consumption, in an environment where the cultivation of cotton had, until recently, been mandatory. Water management in Tajikistan has largely been transferred to the community through the creation of water users’ associations (WUAs), which were established between 2011 and 2013. While all WUAs received training to improve irrigation delivery services, some also received training in cultivating alternative crops and improving cultivation practices through agricultural extension services. Through specific empirical analysis conducted on a primary panel dataset of 1855 farms in southern Tajikistan, we identify the extent to which improvements in irrigation services, and agronomy training through extension services affect decisions pertaining to cultivated areas of cotton and wheat (the traditional crops) and the cultivated area and number of (newer) high-value crops. We also examine the effect of water delivery and agricultural extension services on crop diversity and cropping intensity (how often land is used in a calendar year). We find that improvements in irrigation delivery services affect cultivated areas of cotton and wheat. Cultivation of high value crops is significantly influenced by agricultural extension services. While cropping intensity depends on water delivery services, crop diversity depends on extension services. From a policy perspective, these results highlight the importance of agricultural programs for stimulating agricultural value added in landscapes historically characterized by limited crop choice and a collapse of the agricultural sector.
Farmers / Land use / Wheat / Cotton / Cultivated land / Extension programmes / Training / Water supply / Water management / Malnutrition / Irrigation management / Crop production / Agricultural sector / Agricultural production / Water user associations / Agricultural extension Record No:H048980
This paper examines whether longer training increases farm participation in community-managed water user associations, in a context where assignment to training duration was not randomized and none of these institutions existed before training began. We also examine whether participation is affected when farm managers migrate and leave farm operations to other workers, in a context where only managers have been directly trained, almost all managers are male, and females are increasingly operating farms. We collected microdata from 1855 farms in Southern Tajikistan, where farm managers in 40 subdistricts received longer training, while those in the other 40 received shorter training. These ‘treatment’ and ‘control’ subdistricts were selected by constructing propensity scores and matching without replacement to address observable selection effects that may affect assignment to training duration. Farms were then selected from a census using a stratified random sampling process. A difference-in-difference technique with right-hand-side covariates is employed, where both sets of data were collected after training was completed. This choice of econometric methods controls against farm-level selection effects, but introduces a potential bias due to measurement error. Longer training has a causal effect on increasing participation in WUAs. Results also demonstrate that when male workers not directly trained operate farms, participation is not affected; however, participation is negatively affected when female workers operate farms. These results provide evidence for designing irrigation management programs to target female workers directly, in order to strengthen institutions whose success depends on active farm participation.
Agricultural practices / Participatory management / Community management / Community involvement / Water user associations / Training / Capacity building / Male involvement / s participation / Womenapos / Gender / Farmer participation / Irrigation management Record No:H049082
In Uzbekistan, generally practiced methods of irrigating crops are varieties of flooding (basin, border and furrow). These practices have created problems of waterlogging, salinity and lower irrigation efficiency. Waterlogging and salinization already affect 50 percent of irrigated areas, and irrigation efficiency hardly reaches up to 50-60%. The Karshi Steppe of Kashkadarya region is among the prime cotton and wheat producing areas in Uzbekistan, using around 4.5 – 5.0 billion m3 of irrigation water within a hydrological year. About 75% of this water is abstracted from Amu Darya River in the territory of Turkmenistan and raised up to 135 meters, using a cascade of seven pumping stations to Karshi main canal. Research on implications of applying other irrigation technologies with different irrigation regimes on cotton crop are limited in Uzbekistan, especially under water scarce situations, such as in Karshi Steppe. This study targeted that knowledge gap and compared performance of cotton crop under different irrigation regimes with three technologies (furrows, gated pipes, and drip). The yield data ranged from 3.5 to 4.6 t ha-1, whereas water productivity (WP) values ranged from 0.44 to 1.20 kg m-3 and irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) ranged from 0.51 to 1.41 kg m-3. The measured ranges of IWUE and WP are much wider compared with data available for Karshi Steppe. Due to cotton being sensitive to soil-moisture stress, lack of skillful technicians at site for irrigation scheduling has led to more water stress than was planned for, resulting in lower crop yields than expected.
Crop yield / Drip irrigation / Irrigation methods / Irrigation water / Irrigated land / Pumps / Water use efficiency / Water productivity / Cotton industry / Irrigation efficiency Record No:H049078
Information tool for Zafarabad District, Sogd Province, Tajikistan Author(s): Gafurov, Zafar; Eltazarov, Sarvarbek; Akramov, Bekzod; Djumaboev, Kakhramon; Anarbekov, Oyture; Solieva, Umida Published year: 2018. Publisher(s): Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI) Pages: 28
Reference evapotranspiration (ETo) is a key factor in determining the amount of water needed for crops, which is crucial to correct irrigation planning. FAO Penman-Monteith (EToPM) is among the most popular method to estimate ETo. Apparently sometimes it is difficult to compute ETo using Penman-Monteith due to challenges on data availability. FAO Penman-Monteith method requires many parameters (solar radiation, air temperature, wind speed and humidity), while Hargreaves-Samani method calculates ETo based on air temperature. Because Central Asia is a data limited region with weather stations unable to provide all required parameters for the PM method, this study aimed to estimate ETo using the Hargreaves and Samani (HS) method in Karshi Steppe, in Kashkadarya province, in southern Uzbekistan, based on data from 2011 to 2017. Reference evapotranspiration calculated by non-modified HS method is underestimated during the summer months. The reason for this underestimation might be higher air temperature and wind speed during these months. Therefore, the HS method in its original form cannot be used in our study area to estimate ETo. Modification of the EToHS, through application of a bias correction factor, had better performance and allowed improving the accuracy of the ETo calculation for this region. The calculated ETo values can inform decision making and management practices regarding water allocation, irrigation scheduling and crop selection in dry land regions of Amudarya river basin and the greater Central Asia area.
Statistical methods / Climatic factors / Irrigated land / Temperature / Arid zones / Forecasting / Estimation / Evapotranspiration / River basins Record No:H049270
Strengthening participatory irrigation management in Tajikistan Author(s): International Water Management Institute (IWMI). Published year: 2018. Publisher(s): Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI) Pages: 8 Series: IWMI Water Policy Brief 41
Tremendous development of irrigation since the 1960s combined with unbalanced water resources management led to the destruction of the ecosystems in the delta zone and the gradual desiccation of the Aral Sea, once the fourth largest freshwater lake of the world. Command-and-control based water management in the Aral Sea Basin (ASB) inherited from Soviet times did not create any incentives for investing in improved irrigation infrastructure, adopt water-wise approaches, and thus maintain flows into the Aral Sea. This study examined the potential for market-based water allocation to increase inflows to the Aral Sea while maintaining stable agricultural incomes. We find that a water trading system can improve inflows to the Aral Sea but would require significant compensation for agricultural producers. Agricultural producers can use the compensation payments to cope with reduced water supply by improving irrigation and conveyance efficiencies and by developing alternative rural activities such as livestock grazing, agro-processing, and cultivation of low water consumptive crops. We also find that a water trading system would be more efficient if it includes both trade among irrigation sites and between sites and instream uses.
Farmers / Land use / Flow discharge / Rivers / Models / Hydrology / Economic aspects / Irrigation water / Environmental flows / Ecosystems / Water management / Water allocation / Water market / Water rights Record No:H047004
Conducting rigorous evaluations of whether the process of creating new institutions affects their performance of mandated duties presents several challenges. Not only is assignment to process often not random, but when the process of creating new institutions starts, outcomes and other performance-influencing covariates are not measurable because the yet-to-be created institutions are not functioning at baseline. This paper compares the performance of 74 ‘treated’ water user associations (WUAs) in Tajikistan that were created using a longer training process with 67 ‘control’ WUAs that were created using shorter training, to assess the impact of training on WUA performance of mandated duties. First, propensity scores were constructed to estimate the probabilities of being ‘treated’ by treatment status. These results guided the application of the difference-in-difference technique with right-hand side covariates in a context where field measures of outcomes and other performance-influencing covariates were made after the new institutions were created and functioning. The first measures were taken within 12–18 months of the new institutions being functional and the second measures were taken 24 months after the first. This choice of methods introduces a bias due to measurement error causing an underestimate of the treatment effects, while controlling for biases due to time-invariant and time-varying unobservables. An alternative method that only compared the differences in outcomes at a single point in time after the new institutions were created would have provided an inaccurate estimate of the effects of the intervention. This is a context in which methods such as synthetic controls are impossible to employ due to the nature of the intervention, other macroeconomic structural changes, and severe data restrictions. The methodology employed here generates evidence that, while biased toward generating an underestimate of effect, can still be useful and informative for policy and management purposes, and for evaluating the impact of process on the functioning of new institutions in transition settings.
Infrastructure / Irrigation water / Water distribution / Water delivery / Performance evaluation / Training / Water user associations / Impact assessment Record No:H048579
This paper applies quantitative accounting method to assess water and energy use intensity in irrigated areas of Zafarabad District of Central Asia that are supplied by pumping water uphill (liftirrigated) from the underlying river. The results indicated that the potential water and energy savings could be achieved by applying optimal planning irrigation schedule simulated using Cropwat-8. Some 81 million cubic meters of water and 67 GWh of electricity can be saved while the costs can be reduced by almost 163 thousand USD. This paper describes an example of proper irrigation planning as a tool for water/energy savings and consequent reduction of costs towards water pumping.
River basins / Intensification / Costs / Water conservation / Energy conservation / Irrigated land / Irrigation scheduling / Pumps / Water use efficiency Record No:H049083
Advantages of a nexus approach in addressing complex environmental challenges are increasingly becoming clear. In Central Asia, however, the nexus between water-food-energy has not received adequate attention, as the very few studies that were conducted fell short of quantifying nexus tradeoffs and benefits at a practical, small scale. This paper applies a quantitative accounting method to assess water and energy use intensity in irrigated areas of Karshi Steppe of Central Asia that are supplied by pumping water uphill (lift-irrigated) from the underlying river. The results indicated that the potential water and energy savings, as well as the greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reductions, could be achieved by applying optimal planning deficit irrigation schedule simulated using Cropwat-8. Some 575 million cubic meters of water and 259 GWh of electricity can be saved while the CO2 equivalent emissions can be reduced by almost 122 ktons. Achieving these savings requires a mix of technical and policy components. This study describes an example of proper irrigation planning as a tool for water/energy savings and consequent reduction of CO2 emissions.
Case studies / Pumps / Steppes / Irrigation scheduling / Irrigated land / Emission reduction / Greenhouse gas emissions / Carbon / Eenergy consumption / Water conservation / Water use Record No:H049100
Biodiversity / Ecosystems / Land resources / Risk analysis / Natural disasters / Irrigation systems / Agricultural development / Strategies / Stakeholders / Socioeconomic environment / Rural areas / Water quality / Water use / Water supply / Drinking water / Groundwater / Planning / Development policies / Water governance / Legal frameworks / Sustainability / Integrated management / Water management / Water resources / River basin development Record No:H049441
Risk analysis / Natural disasters / Rural areas / Land resources / Agricultural development / Socioeconomic environment / Stakeholders / Biodiversity / Ecosystems / Planning / Infrastructure / Water use / Indicators / Water quality / Groundwater / Water supply / Drinking water / Strategies / Development policies / Water governance / River basin development / Legal frameworks / Integrated management / Water management / Water resources / Irrigation systems Record No:H049440
Risk analysis / Natural disasters / Rural areas / Land resources / Agricultural development / Socioeconomic environment / Stakeholders / Biodiversity / Ecosystems / Planning / Infrastructure / Water use / Indicators / Water quality / Groundwater / Water supply / Drinking water / Strategies / Development policies / Water governance / River basin development / Legal frameworks / Integrated management / Water management / Water resources / Irrigation systems Record No:H049439
Risk analysis / Natural disasters / Rural areas / Land resources / Agricultural development / Socioeconomic environment / Stakeholders / Biodiversity / Ecosystems / Planning / Infrastructure / Water use / Indicators / Water quality / Groundwater / Water supply / Drinking water / Strategies / Development policies / Water governance / River basin development / Legal frameworks / Integrated management / Water management / Water resources / Irrigation systems Record No:H049438
Biodiversity / Ecosystems / Land resources / Risk analysis / Natural disasters / Irrigation systems / Agricultural development / Strategies / Stakeholders / Socioeconomic environment / Rural areas / Water quality / Water use / Water supply / Drinking water / Groundwater / Planning / Development policies / Water governance / Legal frameworks / Sustainability / Integrated management / Water management / Water resources / River basin development Record No:H049427
Agriculture is an essential sector of Uzbekistan’s economy, with 17.6% of GDP in 2016 and engaging about 26% of the labor force. Having dry climatic conditions, with annual rainfall of 100–300 mm, agriculture is an abundant consumer of the country’s natural resources. More precisely, the agricultural sector constitutes 92% of Uzbekistan’s total water use, which is on average of 56 billion cubic meters of water. This is equal to 60% of all water use in Central Asia. By 2020, irrigated area of Uzbekistan is forecast to increase between 5 and 11% and overall demand for water resources could increase up to 19%. Taking into account the growing pressure on water resources, the Government of Uzbekistan is introducing water conservation policies to mitigate existing and future stresses to water sector. However, to date neither incentives to introduce water saving technologies nor penalties on water users for violating the order of water use have been effective. A lack of incentives for water savings is a key factor affecting water use decisions. In Uzbekistan, water supply for water users (municipal services, agriculture, industry, energy, etc.) is at the expense of the state budget and considered free of charge for the users. Thus, government interventions aimed at the rational use of water resources have minimal impact. This could explain the fact that water application by farmers often exceeds, by several times, the biological requirement for agricultural crops. The objective of this study is to investigate financial/economic incentives to support water savings and water productivity improvements at on-farm level in Uzbekistan. To undertake this research the two-part tariff methodology is being applied as an experiment in three selected Water Consumer Associations in three Provinces of Uzbekistan, representing varied natural and climatic regions. Mini-gauging stations were installed and used as so call Smartsticks (low-cost, crowd-sensed technology) to measure discharge. The approach estimates the constant and variable expenses of Water Consumer Associations (WCA) when the water fee is simultaneously linked with crop area and water volume. The results will show the effects of water pricing (i.e. Irrigation service fee) and whether payment for irrigation water can influence the water consumption behavior of farmers. The study outcomes can form the base to recommend new water payment policies at the WCAs level, which in turn can have widespread influence on rational water use and collected revenue for water delivering organizations across regions.
Water delivery / Water rates / Water conservation / Water resources / Water use / Water user associations / Water accounting / Agricultural sector / Financing / Economic aspects / Water conservation / Water productivity Record No:H049080
Agriculture is an essential sector of Uzbekistan’s economy, with 17.6% of GDP in 2016 and engaging about 26% of the labor force. Having dry climatic conditions, with annual rainfall of 100–300 mm, agriculture is an abundant consumer of the country’s natural resources. More precisely, the agricultural sector constitutes 92% of Uzbekistan’s total water use, which is on average of 56 billion cubic meters of water. This is equal to 60% of all water use in Central Asia. By 2020, irrigated area of Uzbekistan is forecast to increase between 5 and 11% and overall demand for water resources could increase up to 19%. Taking into account the growing pressure on water resources, the Government of Uzbekistan is introducing water conservation policies to mitigate existing and future stresses to water sector. However, to date neither incentives to introduce water saving technologies nor penalties on water users for violating the order of water use have been effective. A lack of incentives for water savings is a key factor affecting water use decisions. In Uzbekistan, water supply for water users, specifically for agriculture is at the expense of the state budget and considered free of charge for the users. Thus, government interventions aimed at the rational use of water resources have minimal impact. This could explain the fact that water application by farmers often exceeds, by several times, the biological requirement for agricultural crops. As part of a larger project to support water savings and water productivity improvements at the farm level in Uzbekistan, the project team is introducing Smartstick technology. Smartsticks are a low-cost, crowd-sourced technology to measure water level and corresponding discharge volume on a real-time basis. Within the project, Smartsticks are being used to estimate water consumption and whether the implementation of water tariffs influence water use decisions by farmers. Furthermore, this technology helps effective data transmission on discharge flow between farmers and Water Consumer Associations via GSM that builds corresponding trust. The technology and the broader research will be used to formulate recommendations to the Government of Uzbekistan on new water payment policies at the WCAs level as a means to support rational water use and generate revenue for water delivering organizations across regions.
Farmers / Agricultural sector / Financing / Technology / Water rates / Water conservation / Water resources / Water use / Water user associations / Water accounting Record No:H049079
Agricultural production / Soil salinity / Population growth / Population density / Assessment / Pumps / Streams / River basin management / Land use / Land resources / Irrigated land / Irrigation systems / Hydrometeorology / Meteorological factors / Climatic factors / Rural areas / Sustainability / International waters / Water use / Water supply / Water governance / Water management / Water resources / Integrated management Record No:H048491
The rapidly growing population in Uzbekistan has put massive pressure on limited water resources, resulting in frequent water shortages. Irrigation is by far the major water use. Improving irrigation water use through the institutional change of establishing water consumer associations (WCAs) has been identified as a way to increase agricultural production and meet the food demand in the area. However, most WCAs are not fully able to organize collective action or generate sufficient funds to carry out their responsibilities. This study investigated the water-resource-related challenges faced by WCAs and local farmers in Kashkadarya Province in Uzbekistan, using semi-structured expert interviews and focus group discussions. The resulting data were analyzed using qualitative analysis software (Atlas.ti). The results indicated that outdated infrastructure, poor governance, and farmers’ non-payment of irrigation service fees hamper sustainable water management. Greater trust and communication within the WCAs would make an important contribution to effective collective action and to the long-term sustainability of local associations.
Case studies / Communities / Households / Farmers / Agricultural production / Water use / Water management / Water resources / Water user associations / Sustainable development / Governance / Collective action / Institutional development / Infrastructure / Irrigation water / Irrigation systems / Irrigation management Record No:H048175
Case studies / Infrastructure / Drainage / Farmers / Steppes / Irrigation canals / Irrigation management / Irrigated farming / Irrigation systems / Water resources / Water management / Water user associations / Water use / Collective action Record No:H048730
Environmental management / Remote sensing / Governmental organizations / Capacity building / Surveys / Assessment / Evaluation / Land resources / Land use / Data processing / Mapping / Satellite imagery / Water resources / Water management / International waters / River basin management / Planning / Atlases / Training materials / GIS Record No:H048420
Digital diagnostic atlas: Murgab River Basin Author(s): Gafurov, Zafar; Eltazarov, Sarvarbek Published year: 2017. Publisher(s): Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI) Pages: 40p. (Also in Russian)
This paper provides a brief synthesis of research conducted on gender in irrigation, and the tools and frameworks used in the past to promote improvement for women in on-farm agricultural water management. It then presents results from the pilot of the Gender in Irrigation Learning and Improvement Tool (GILIT) in locations in Malawi and Uzbekistan in 2015. Through the results of the tool, the paper looks at benefit sharing between men and women farmers: (i) access to irrigation scheme resources (including information, for example, in the design phase; land, water and other inputs); (ii) participation in scheme management; and (iii) access to scheme benefits, including access to market information, packaging and payments. The indicators for the tool were modelled after principles reflected in existing gender policies and strategies, and intended to improve performance at field level in line with national and regional goals. The paper concludes with informal and formal constraints to gender-equitable outcomes from irrigation investments identified during the pilot, and suggests how the tool can be used by various development actors to improve the benefits for women from investments in agricultural water management.
State intervention / Decision making / Resource management / Stakeholders / Community involvement / Investment / Market access / Farmers / Water allocation / Water management / Productivity / Agricultural production / Agricultural extension / On-farm production / Assessment / Improvement / Participation / Irrigation schemes / Men / Women’s participation / Women / Performance evaluation / Training programmes / Learning / Gender equity / Research and development Record No:H048368
Digital diagnostic atlas: Murgab River Basin [In Russian] Author(s): Gafurov, Zafar; Eltazarov, Sarvarbek Published year: 2017. Publisher(s): Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI) Pages: 44p. (Also in English)
Capacity building / Infrastructure / Budgets / Agricultural development / Project implementation / Project management / Financing / Development projects / Climate change / Integrated management / Rural areas / Water supply / Water policy / Water governance / Water management / Water resources / Sustainability Record No:H048376
Transboundary water interaction III: contest and compliance Author(s): Zeitoun, M.; Cascao, A. E.; Warner, J.; Mirumachi, N.; Matthews, Nathanial Published year: 2017. Journal: International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics Pages: 17(2):271-294
This paper serves international water con ict resolution efforts by examining the ways that states contest hegemonic transboundary water arrangements. The conceptual framework of dynamic transboundary water interaction that it presents integrates theories about change and counter-hegemony to ascertain coercive, leverage, and liberating mechanisms through which contest and transformation of an arrangement occur. While the mechanisms can be active through sociopolitical processes either of compliance or of contest of the arrangement, most transboundary water interaction is found to contain elements of both. The role of power asymmetry is interpreted through classi cation of intervention strategies that seek to either in uence or challenge the arrangements. Coexisting contest and compliance serve to explain in part the stasis on the Jordan and Ganges rivers (where the non-hegemons have in effect consented to the arrangement), as well as the changes on the Tigris and Mekong rivers, and even more rapid changes on the Amu Darya and Nile rivers (where the non-hegemons have confronted power asymmetry through in uence and challenge). The framework also stresses how transboundary water events that may appear isolated are more accurately read within the many sociopolitical processes and arrangements they are shaped by. By clarifying the typically murky dynamics of interstate relations over transboundary waters, furthermore, the framework exposes a new suite of entry points for hydro-diplomatic initiatives.
Conflict / Political aspects / Rivers / Aquifers / International agreements / International cooperation / International waters Record No:H047787
Case studies / Infrastructure / Drainage / Farmers / Steppes / Irrigation canals / Irrigation management / Irrigated farming / Irrigation systems / Water resources / Water management / Water user associations / Water use / Collective action Record No:H048460
Water scarcity driven by climate change, growing demand, and inefficient management of water and related infrastructure is a serious threat to livelihoods in the Aral Sea Basin (ASB) of Central Asia. In recent decades, downstream water shortages have become increasingly common and inflows into the Aral Sea have become very limited. Meanwhile, water losses are enormous both at conveyance and field levels because of outdated infrastructure and the dominance of highly inefficient basin and furrow irrigation methods. Intensification and modernization of irrigation systems, while requiring investment of scarce capital resources, could thus substantially reduce non-beneficial water consumption and help in coping with increasing water scarcity. This study applies a hydro-economic model that solves for the investment in improved irrigation efficiency across the various irrigation sites in the ASB that delivers the highest economic gains. Improvement of the efficiency of irrigation canals and implementation of field efficiency investments and practices, such as drip irrigation, and alternate dry or short furrow irrigation (for rice), would substantially improve economic outcomes. Conveyance efficiency investments are particularly worthwhile in downstream regions where sandy soils are common and return flows largely feed saline lakes in tail-end depressions. Meanwhile, field-level efficiency should be fully upgraded in all rice-producing regions through the use of drip and alternate wet and dry irrigation, as well as with drip irrigation in the cotton-producing Ferghana Valley of the Syr Darya Basin. The value of these improvements increases with reduced water availability. Implementation of an optimal set of investments could increase basinwide benefits by 20% (from US$ 3.2 to 3.8 billion) under normal water availability and by 40% (from US$ 2.5 to 3.5 billion) under dry conditions (80% of normal supply).
Environmental flows / Investment / Economic aspects / Water scarcity / Water allocation / Water availability / Irrigation efficiency Record No:H047174
Logframes are fundamental to contemporary development. However, there are ongoing debates about their efficacy. This paper pinpoints the limitations of the logframe approach in a water project in Central Asia. Issues surrounding logframes are identified. These include addressing internal risks; the use of baseline studies for the accuracy of assumptions; the ability to adapt under an inflexible budget; and linking the logframe and contract. Findings show that rigid planning may constrain effective project implementation. Greater flexibility through embedded learning and adaptation, adjustable budgets and meaningful mainstreaming of risks may equip projects to cope with uncertainties to achieve sustainability.
River basins / Budgets / Water resources / Cooperation / International waters / Uncertainty / Risk analysis / Projects / Water management Record No:H047105
Reduced river runoff and expected upstream infrastructural developments are both potential threats to irrigation water availability for the downstream countries in Central Asia. Although it has been recurrently mentioned that a reduction in water supply will hamper irrigation in the downstream countries, the magnitude of associated economic losses, economy-wide repercussions on employment rates, and degradation of irrigated lands has not been quantified as yet. A computable general equilibrium model is used to assess the economy-wide consequences of a reduced water supply in Uzbekistan—a country that encompasses more than half of the entire irrigated croplands in Central Asia. Modeling findings showed that a 10–20 % reduction in water supply, as expected in the near future, may reduce the areas to be irrigated by 241,000–374,000 hectares and may cause unemployment to a population of 712–868,000, resulting in a loss for the national income of 3.6–4.3 %. A series of technical, financial, and institutional measures, implementable at all levels starting from the farm to the basin scale, are discussed for reducing the expected water risks. The prospects of improving the basin-wide water management governance, increasing water and energy use efficiency, and establishing the necessary legal and institutional frameworks for enhancing the introduction of needed technological and socioeconomic change are argued as options for gaining more regional water security and equity.
Household consumption / Value added / Resource management / Public services / Models / Energy consumption / Downstream / River basins / Income / Land use / Farmland / Unemployment / Agriculture / Water power / Water use / Water governance / Water supply / Water availability / Irrigation water / Costs / Macroeconomics / Economic aspects Record No:H047544
Water scarcity due to increasing water demand triggered by population growth and irrigation expansion versus a limited and increasingly variable water supply as a consequence of climate change is presently one of the global challenges. This is exemplified in Uzbekistan, Central Asia, where irrigated agriculture is the primary source of the livelihoods of the rural population that makes more than 60 % of all inhabitants. Yet, socio-economic and ecological challenges keep growing, also due to the inefficient management of water resources. Therefore, options to increase water use efficiency were analyzed while considering the entire supply chain of products including the production, processing, consumption and trade stages and processes. These options were analyzed through an elaborated environmentally extended input-output model. The options examined throughout the entire supply chain included: (i) implementing advanced field-level water saving technologies, (ii) increasing crop diversity through expanding fruits and vegetables production and reducing the area of current dominant crops (cotton and paddy rice in downstream), (iii) fostering the further development of less-water demanding agricultural processing industries, (iv) upgrading production value chains by expanding the production of the commodities with higher values added, (v) reducing production and consumption losses, and (vi) diversifying exports by replacing the current cotton fiber exports with cotton commodities of higher values added. The findings may spur decision-makers to formulating strategic priorities at national level and coordinating water uses considering comprehensively technical, economic and ecological aspects along the entire supply chain, which is a key element of IWRM concepts. However, it is argued that increasing water use efficiency through technological and economic transformation reforms necessitates the empowerment of water users, raising their awareness for, and providing the institutional and market infrastructure, which is in-line with IWRM principles as well.
Empowerment / Rice / Cotton / Vegetables / Fruit / Crop production / Economic development / Economic sectors / Supply chain / Arid zones / Agriculture / Irrigated farming / Indicators / Water management / Water resources / Water supply / Water demand / Water scarcity / Water use efficiency / Water footprint Record No:H047543
While in the international literature water sharing in the Syr Darya Basin per past agreements is widely portrayed as most benefiting Uzbekistan, here the dynamics of water allocation within small transboundary tributaries in Ferghana Province show Uzbekistan as benefiting least. The case study highlights that water allocation for Uzbekistan within the tributaries has decreased over the years. Uzbekistan’s approach to compensate for the reduced allocations by means of other water sources has had large long-term cost implications for irrigated agriculture as well as the irrigation bureaucracy. This article contributes to the international debate on benefit sharing in transboundary rivers. The article highlights that costs should be incorporated into the benefitsharing approach, and therefore the focus on benefit sharing alone is misguiding riparian states. Furthermore, the article raises the need to reevaluate benefits, since perceptions of potential benefits change over time.
Case studies / Upstream / Riparian zones / Benefits / Agriculture / Irrigated farming / Irrigated sites / Rivers / Tributaries / Pumps / Bureaucracy / Irrigation systems / Water rights / Water supply / Water costs / International waters / Water resources / Water allocation Record No:H047581
Deficit irrigation could be considered as one potential option to improve water productivity and obtain some level of assured income under water scarcity and drought conditions in Central Asia. This article investigates water productivity and economic returns to two varieties of potato crop under four different soilmoisture regimes in Uzbekistan. Results suggest that deficit irrigation may not be considered as an option to improve water productivity of potato crop, particularly when the deficit is high. However, deficit irrigation options could be still considered as a viable option to maintain food security and some assured farm income even under extreme drought conditions.
Income / Economic analysis / Farmers / Drought / Soil moisture / Potatoes / Crop yield / Water scarcity / Water productivity / Food security / Irrigation / Climate change / Water use efficiency Record No:H047466
Farmers / Irrigation management / Irrigation canals / Economic value / User charges / Irrigation water / Sustainability / Financial situation / Water user associations Record No:H047519
After Tajikistan emerged an independent country, major land reforms took place. Large collective farms were broken up into smaller (dekhan) private farms. This created a vacuum, because there was no provision to manage competing needs of water among private farms. Water user associations were created with the efforts of the government, and several international donors, to manage distribution of water between private farms and to share in maintenance of smaller canals. In this paper we provide a brief description of the creation of water user associations, as well as their roles and responsibilities. We then describe the opportunities for increasing livelihoods, and contributing to increased agricultural productivity. Can these WUAs improve access to and distribution of water? Would better irrigations services increase cropping areas? Would yields of cotton improve? Can these be an improvement in crop diversity? We identify the key existing gaps in knowledge, that would provide an understanding of the impacts of these associations on wellbeing. We also describe some of the challenges that may limit the efficacy of these associations. Are these institutions likely to be able to cover their operational costs? Can these institutions serve well as cropping decisions change? Are these institutions likely to represent the needs of female farmers? We identify the key factors that need to be examined more closely, that provide an understating of the resilience of these associations. The answers to these questions would provide important information for policies to support and strengthen water user associations in Tajikistan.
Irrigation water / Water availability / Farmers / Irrigation schemes / Irrigation canals / Cropping systems / Crop yield / Private farms / Small scale farming / Productivity / Agricultural production / Water user associations Record No:H047855
Labour / Crops / Community organizations / Decision making / Field preparation / Private farm / Cultivated land / Agriculture / Small scale farming / Irrigation management / Irrigation water / Farmers / Female labour / s participation / Womenapos / Role of women / Household food security / Food security / Equity / Land productivity / Water rates / Water supply / Water availability / Water management / Water governance / Water productivity / Water user associations Record No:H047854
Living standards / Private farms / Farm area / Cultivated land / Crop yield / Financing / Canals / Infrastructure / Irrigation water / Irrigation management / Impact assessment / Cotton industry / Agricultural sector / s participation / Womenapos / Role of women / Gender / Food security / Equity / Land productivity / Waterlogging / Water supply / Watercourses / Water governance / Water management / Water productivity / Water user associations Record No:H047847
Conventional emphasis on basin-wide water management has often resulted in the formation of transboundary water law on the basin or near basin scale. In Central Asia, however, the Syr Darya Basin possesses an abundance of tributary-level cooperative agreements that guide and codify water sharing and management on the sub-basin scale. To understand the volume and nature of this cooperation, this paper compiled and analyzed a set of agreements that apply to small transboundary tributaries (STTs) in the Syr Darya Basin. The paper assembled the largest collection of STT water agreements—123 in total—and classified such documents according to a range of criteria including: purpose and objectives, water management issues, and operational mechanisms. Results of this work highlight a rise in sub-basin-scale cooperation in the first decade of the twenty-first century, a time when large-scale cooperation appeared tenuous; a practical orientation to transboundary water management at a small scale; and an abundance of treaties of short time duration. These findings present options related to scale, time duration and focus of transboundary water law that can help inform future treaty development.
Treaties / International agreements / Watershed / River basins / Rivers / Water management / Water law / Cooperation / International waters Record No:H047242
Water security in the Syr Darya Basin Author(s): Wegerich, K.; Van Rooijen, Daniel; Soliev, I.; Mukhamedova, N. Published year: 2015. Journal: Water Pages: 7:4657-4684
The importance of water security has gained prominence on the international water agenda, but the focus seems to be directed towards water demand. An essential element of water security is the functioning of public organizations responsible for water supply through direct and indirect security approaches. Despite this, there has been a tendency to overlook the water security strategies of these organizations as well as constraints on their operation. This paper discusses the critical role of water supply in achieving sustainable water security and presents two case studies from Central Asia on the management of water supply for irrigated agriculture. The analysis concludes that existing water supply bureaucracies need to be revitalized to effectively address key challenges in water security.
Case studies / River basins / Bureaucracy / Irrigated sites / Irrigation systems / Irrigated farming / International waters / Water management / Water supply / Water security Record No:H047173
Ongoing discussions on water-energy-food nexus generally lack a historical perspective and more rigorous institutional analysis. Scrutinizing a relatively mature benefit sharing approach in the context of transboundary water management, the study shows how such analysis can be implemented to facilitate understanding in an environment of high institutional and resource complexity. Similar to system perspective within nexus, benefit sharing is viewed as a positive sum approach capable of facilitating cooperation among riparian parties by shifting the focus from the quantities of water to benefits derivable from its use and allocation. While shared benefits from use and allocation are logical corollary of the most fundamental principles of international water law, there are still many controversies as to the conditions under which benefit sharing could serve best as an approach. Recently, the approach has been receiving wider attention in the literature and is increasingly applied in various basins to enhance negotiations. However, relatively little attention has been paid to the costs associated with benefit sharing, particularly in the long run. The study provides a number of concerns that have been likely overlooked in the literature and examines the approach in the case of the Ferghana Valley shared by Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan utilizing data for the period from 1917 to 2013. Institutional analysis traces back the origins of property rights of the transboundary infrastructure, shows cooperative activities and fierce negotiations on various governance levels. The research discusses implications of the findings for the nexus debate and unveils at least four types of costs associated with benefit sharing: (1) Costs related to equity of sharing (horizontal and vertical); (2) Costs to the environment; (3) Transaction costs and risks of losing water control; and (4) Costs as a result of likely misuse of issue linkages.
Case studies / Environmental effects / Equity / River basins / Water supply / Water governance / Water resources development / Corporate culture / History / Benefit-cost ratio / Cost benefit analysis / Cooperation / International waters Record No:H047080
Donor sponsored projects are often criticized for the tendency to impose standardized institutional and technical solutions in irrigation. Although, this might be the case, a project is based on internal actors, ‘project owners’, who influence solutions and implementation processes. Little attention has been paid to project owners, internal dynamics and how these shape aid projects. In this paper, a water user associations (WUAs) project in Central Asia is explored, which introduced flow regulating and metering devices (hydroposts). It is explored how change within project owners, differences in their interests and absence of a proper knowledge management system within the project influenced the alteration of project objectives, causing failure of the implementation process. The paper concludes that internal dynamics within projects are the main source of project uncertainty and risk. Some recommendations are offered how these risks can be minimized.
Case studies / Risk management / Uncertainty / Knowledge management / Stakeholders / Project evaluation / Water law / Water user associations / Water management Record No:H047102
Local government / Irrigation canals / Irrigation schemes / Water use / Water management / Water governance / Water rates / Water supply / Farm income / Farmers / Land reform / Land use / Cropping patterns / Water user associations Record No:H047461
In the literature on the implementation of national policies there is an assumption that these get implemented uniformly within one country. Here, with a focus on the implementation of national policy on shifting from administrative to hydrological/ hydrographic principles of water management in the Zerafshan Valley and the Ferghana Valley in Uzbekistan, this assumption is questioned. The case study demonstrates that national policies are resisted by lower-level bureaucrats, leading to diverse, even contradictory, outcomes of the same policy. The vested interests of a multiplicity of bureaucracies, the power of individual bureaucrats, and the discretional power given to bureaucracies in interpreting national policy are responsible for the different outcomes. The article calls for more comparative assessments across different regions for a better understanding of policy implementation.
Case studies / Policy making / Administrative structures / Bureaucracy / Political aspects / Irrigation systems / River basins / Water management / Hydrology Record No:H046444
Managed aquifer recharge: potential component of water management in the Syrdarya River Basin Author(s): Karimov, Akmal; Smakhtin, Vladimir; Mavlonov, A.; Borisov, V.; Gracheva, I.; Miryusupov, F.; Akhmedov, A.; Anzelm, K.; Yakubov, S.; Karimov, A. A. Published year: 2015. Journal: Journal of Hydrologic Engineering Pages: Special Issue: 8th International Symposium on Managed Aquifer Recharge. 20(3):1-12
This paper argues that sequential in-channel reservoirs in the Syrdarya River Basin of Central Asia are not sufficient to meet the needs of both upstream and downstream water users. Some of the consequences of the use of in-channel reservoirs include fresh water discharges into the saline depression and flooding of irrigated land in winter and water shortages in summer, which causes low water productivity. This study examines the feasibility of two alternative management strategies (1) building additional off-channel reservoirs, and (2) managed aquifer recharge (MAR). First, the potential for MAR in the upstream Fergana Valley is estimated through a regional assessment of MAR potential, field-scale pilot experiments, and simulation modeling. Second, the potential for MAR is analyzed for lift canal irrigation areas, which cover 70% of the irrigated highlands and the foothills in the river midstream, with a focus on energy use intensity and water and energy productivity. Third, the potential for building off-channel reservoirs and MAR is compared in the downstream portion of the river. Specifically for the Makhtaral Irrigation Project (MIP), a scenario of shifting from lift canal irrigation and groundwater extraction for drainage purposes is compared with groundwater irrigation and MAR. The MIP, located in the tail-end of the transboundary Dustyk Canal, faces waterlogging and salinity issues because of the shallow water table. The study concludes that transboundary cooperation in transboundary water transfers for MAR may increase the amount of water that could be stored underground. Overall, it is shown that there is a high potential for MAR in the Syrdarya River Basin with benefits at both the state and farm levels.
Valleys / Reservoirs / Salinity / Water use / Energy consumption / Water power / Drainage / Irrigation canals / Irrigated land / River basins / Downstream / Upstream / Water storage / Water resources / Water table / Groundwater recharge / Aquifers / Water management Record No:H046896
Managing water and fertilizer for sustainable agricultural intensification Author(s): Drechsel, Pay; Heffer, P.; Magen, H.; Mikkelsen, R.; Wichelns, D. Published year: 2015. Publisher(s): Paris, France: International Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA); Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI); Georgia, USA: International Plant Nutrition Institute (IPNI); Horgen, Switzerland: International Potash Institute (IPI) Pages: 270
River basins / Reservoirs / Agriculture / Water availability / Water use / Water management / Water demand / Water allocation / Climate change / Crop production / Irrigated farming Record No:H047378
Institutional design for water governance assumes the possibility of intentional introduction of policy innovations into the new contexts or amending existing institutions. Such institutional design has been common in the water sector and examples include participatory irrigation management, integrated water resources management plans and water privatization programmes. With increasing application of institutional design across various political, socio-economic and cultural settings, the importance of the context is increasingly accepted. The key question is therefore how to reconcile institutional design and contextual variability. Based on our research on the introduction of water user associations in parts of Turkey, Azerbaijan and Uzbekistan, we conclude that a top-down institutional design implemented nation-wide and not involving multiple stakeholders and engaging their views, is doomed to failure. As an alternative, we offer interactive institutional design, which is based on collaborative approaches to institutional design and treats design as works of assemblage.
Case studies / Stakeholders / Irrigation management / Water management / Water governance / Policy making / Collective action / Water user associations / Institution building Record No:H046740
The construction of the Rogun Dam in the Amu Darya Basin to increase upstream energy generation creates potential trade-offs with existing downstream irrigation, due to the different timing of energy and irrigation water demands. The present analysis, based on a hydro-economic optimization model, shows that cooperative basin-wide maximization of benefits would lead to large increases in upstream hydropower production and only minor changes in downstream irrigation benefits. However, if upstream stations, including Rogun, are managed unilaterally to maximize energy production, hydropower benefits might more than double while irrigation benefits greatly decrease, thereby substantially reducing overall basin benefits.
Reservoirs / Water availability / Irrigation water / Water power / Water allocation / Upstream / River basin management / Models / Economic aspects / Hydrology / Energy generation / Energy demand / Water scarcity Record No:H047222
Irrigation extension development for improving water productivity in Fergana Valley of Central Asia Author(s): Jumaboev, Kahramon; Anarbekov, Oyture; Reddy, Junna Mohan; Mukhammedjanov, S.; Eshmuratov, Davron Published year: 2015. Pages: pp.9-14 Series: InDeCA [Designing Social Institutions in Transition: Promotion of Institutional Development for Common Pool Resources Management in Central Asia] Discussion Paper Series 6/2015
Public-private cooperation / Innovation / Training / Farmers / Water use / Water productivity / Agricultural extension / Irrigation management Record No:H047351
The presentation first guides to the challenges of water management. First are old challenges related poor conditions and physical deterioration of irrigation and drainage systems; while new ones such as the rising number of farming units not aligned with hydraulic boundaries; variety of crops grown therefore diverging irrigation schedules; mismatch between on-farm irrigation system and smaller farming units; and dissolution of former water management units of collective farms. In the next part of the presentation we provide a cross-country comparison of water reforms implemented by international donor community in the region. As we will show most of WUAs are not water users driven, they have been established via big bang campaigns of governments and donors within the borders of former collective farms without taking into account local context of irrigation and farming. We conclude that the major constraints for the consistency and improved performance of water user groups are found in uneven implementation of water reforms and in some countries, reluctance to change within each country, weak legal basis for the responsibilities and water rights of WUAs, sustainability issues connected with water services pricing and inclusion and obligations of water users.
Small scale farming / Irrigation practices / Institutional reform / Agricultural policy / Water management / Water user associations Record No:H047350
Increasing water demand due to population growth, irrigation expansion, industrial development, and the need for ecosystem improvement under mounting investment costs for developing new water sources calls for the efficient, equitable and sustainable management of water resources. This is particularly essential in the Aral Sea Basin (ASB) where ineffective water management institutions are the primary reason of intersectoral and inter-state water sharing conflicts and lack of incentives for improving water use efficiency. This study examined market-based water allocation as an alternative option to the traditional administrative allocation to deal with water scarcity issues in the ASB. Potential economic gains of tradable water use rights were analyzed based on a newly constructed integrated hydro-economic river basin management model. The analysis differentiates between inter-catchment and intra-catchment water rights trading. The results show that compared to a baseline with fixed water use rights, inter-catchment water rights trading can increase basin-wide benefits by US$ 373–476 million. Under intra-catchment trading, gains are still US$ 259–339 million, depending on relative water availability. Gains from trade are larger under drier conditions. However, water rights trading carries a series of transaction costs. We find that in case transaction costs exceed US$ 0.05/m3 of water traded there is no additional economic gain from water rights trading. Enforcement of the rule of law, infrastructural improvements, participation of representatives of key water stakeholders in decision making processes, and mutual trust and cooperative relationships among the riparian countries are suggested as means for reducing transaction costs of water rights trading contracts.
Catchment areas / Cost benefit analysis / Economic aspects / Water allocation / Water use efficiency / Water demand / Water resources / Water rights Record No:H046790
Thinking inside the basin: scale in transboundary water management Author(s): International Water Management Institute (IWMI). Published year: 2015. Publisher(s): Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI) Pages: 8 Series: IWMI Water Policy Brief 39
Case studies / Treaties / Infrastructure / Catchment areas / Cooperation / Institutions / Tributaries / River basins / Water governance / Water law / Water management / International waters Record No:H047363
After independence in 1991, Uzbekistan introduced a policy on food security and consequently reduced the irrigated area allocated to cotton and increased the area of winter wheat. Shifting to winter wheat allowed farmers to grow a second crop outside the state-order system. The second crops are the most profitable and therefore farmers tried to maximize the area grown to this second crop. Although the second crops are the most profitable, only few studies have focused on this topic. Evidence is presented which shows that state control of crops has been extended from the main crops, cotton and wheat, to the second crops. Satellite images used for classification of main crops in two provinces of the Ferghana Valley for 2006–2011, highlight that the area utilized for second crops is dependent on the infrastructure that enables access to the water resource, not on the area’s position within the irrigation system.
Water user associations / Water resources / State intervention / Farmers / Food policies / Winter wheat / Cotton / Cash crops / Irrigated land / Crop production Record No:H046615
Integrating economic efficiency and environmental sustainability indicators is essential for designing policies for a sustainable development. Given the growing pressure on water resources, efficient water use becomes an essential environmental criteria for formulating adjustment reforms. Despite the wide use of backward and forward linkages as well as direct and indirect resource (energy, water, etc.) uses based on environmentally extended input-output models for assessing the performance of economic sectors, the common practice of presenting different indicators separately obstructed a straightforward policy interpretation of results. To derive a composite indicator that allows to direct ranking of sectors, we combined therefore a direct and indirect water use intensities with backward and forward linkage indexes by using the multi-criteria analysis method-TOPSIS (Technique for order preference by similarity to ideal solution). The model was implemented to formulate sectoral transformation measures guided by sustainable growth objectives in Uzbekistan, Central Asia, which is a representative of an area with growing water scarcity. The results showed that the presently promoted crops under the state order system—cotton and wheat—and crop preferred by farmers— rice—are the least effective production options for reaching such a sustainable growth. It is argued therefore that unbiased support for all crops through adaption of the current state order system for cotton and wheat cultivation is needed to achieve a more diversified crop portfolio with an increased share of fruits and vegetables. A further development of agro-processing industries and livestock sector bears more potential for sustainable economic development than a further promotion of producing raw agricultural commodities. Investing in industrial sectors illustrated more potential than in agriculture related sectors when aiming at economic effectiveness and increased water use efficiency. It is concluded that, with a relevant sectoral transformation, Uzbekistan has high opportunities to cope with reduced water availability.
Case studies / Crop production / Water productivity / Virtual water / Water resources / Water use efficiency / Indicators / Environmental sustainability / Models / Input output analysis / Economic sectors / Economic development Record No:H046590
Poor performance of government-managed irrigation systems persists globally. This paper argues that addressing performance requires not simply more investment or different policy approaches, but reform of the bureaucracies responsible for irrigation management. Based on reform experiences in The Philippines, Mexico, Indonesia, and Uzbekistan, we argue that irrigation (policy) reform cannot be treated in isolation from the overall functioning of
Case studies / Farmers / Financing / Political aspects / Public administration / Policy / Institutional reform / Organizational development / State intervention / Irrigation systems / Irrigation management / Water management / Reform / Bureaucracy Record No:H046526
Case studies / Stakeholders / Upstream / Downstream / River basins / Water user associations / Flooding / Drought / Water management / Water scarcity / Adaptation / Climate change Record No:H046574
This report analyzes the influence of agrarian transformations on the feminization of agricultural production in rural Tajikistan. It explores women’s multiple labor relations for meeting basic needs of the household. The evidence shows that households have to depend on more types of agricultural work to secure day-to-day as well as long-term livelihood security. Overall, feminization appears in different types and groupings. The implication is that women in agriculture might not be adequately targeted in policies or integrated within intervention programs.
Case studies / Water user associations / Income / Poverty / Households / Farms / Agriculture sector / Employment / Female labor / Women / Gender / Feminization / Land reform Record No:H046493
Although originally conceived as farmer organizations, today water user associations (WUAs) are expected to incorporate different water users and uses. However, the inclusion of different client groups in WUAs’ governance and management structure and the expansion of their service provision appear to present certain challenges. Using a case study from Uzbekistan, this paper explores whether a recently established WUA is able to integrate small users in village settlements and to provide services to meet the rising water demands of the rural population in Ferghana province. The finding shows that traditional water control, including technical, organizational, political and socio-economic components, is ill equipped to integrate the rural community. This challenge will increase with increasing population pressure and finite resources.
Case studies / Wheat / Cotton / Irrigation systems / Households / Rural communities / Gender / Farmers / Water control / Water use / Water user associations / Water management Record No:H046310
Water is getting scarce in many parts of the world, consequently challenging researchers, policy makers and practitioners to design options for a more efficient use of these resources, especially in irrigated agriculture. Although technical-economic efficiency of potential water-wise options and institutional restrictions for their implementation in the developing and less-developed countries are well documented, little evidence exists about the incentives for farmers and regional development agencies to adopt the efficient irrigation innovations. A linear programming model for optimizing regional agricultural income was developed to analyze the impact of water availability, water pricing, and investment accessibility on water-wise innovation adoption and conveyance efficiency improvement. The model was applied to the case of Khorezm, a region in northwestern Uzbekistan that is part of the downstream Amu Darya River in the Aral Sea Basin. Model results indicate that improving conveyance efficiency is economically less attractive than improving field-level water use efficiency due to enormous investment costs for lining the canals. Water-wise options such as manuring cotton and potatoes, implementing hydrogel in wheat and cotton, and drip irrigation of melons and vegetables are among the most promising field-level improvement options to gain optimal regional incomes under decreased water availability and increased water prices. It is illustrated that despite the huge investments needed for a wide-scale implementation of modern irrigation technologies such as drip irrigation and laser-guided land leveling, their adoption will substantially improve water use efficiency, while their implementation costs can be compensated for by the additional revenues due to increased yields and reduced costs.
Land levelling / Crops / Drip irrigation / Farmers / Economic aspects / Pricing / Water supply / Water availability / Models / Water use efficiency / Water management / Arid zones / Investment / Irrigation development Record No:H046732
Improving irrigation efficiency is of utmost importance in the irrigated lands of Central Asia, such as the Khorezm region of Uzbekistan, since water misuse and subsequent soil salinization threaten environment, economy, and livelihoods. To this end, several field-level ‘water-wise’ innovations were selected, which are classified into four groups that address crop pattern change, soil moisture maintenance, uniform water distribution, and furrow irrigation improvement. The potential of these innovations to raise irrigation water use efficiency from its current low level was analyzed from a socio-economic and technical point of view with a focus on short-term measures to cope with sudden water shortages. The overall water use reduction potential of these options was estimated considering their adoption feasibility within the time horizon of one year. To prioritize the examined innovations according to their contribution to overall water use reduction and water profitability, ‘marginal water profitability curves’ were developed. This integrated approach could serve as a simple but effective policy tool. The findings indicate that the option of replacing rice by maize contributes to more than 50 % of the total possible water use reduction. However, while all the other options increase the total revenue, reduced revenues will be unavoidable when paddy rice is replaced by maize. Manuring provides the highest additional profit per volume of reduced water use, but contributes less than 10 % of the total water use reduction potential. With water-wise options as an immediate and short-term measure to cope with sudden water shortages, the theoretical total estimated water reduction at the field level amounts to 183 – 376,000,000 m3 or 9.0 – 18.5 % of the current total irrigation water requirement in the region. For coping with sudden shortages characterized by a water availability of only 60 % of the normal water supply, long-term planning and management of irrigation activities focusing on a wider adoption of advanced irrigation technologies are necessary.
Economic aspects / Organic fertilizers / Maize / Rice / Crop management / Soil moisture / Farmers / Drip irrigation / Furrow irrigation / Irrigation methods / Water use efficiency / Irrigation water / Irrigated land / Water scarcity Record No:H046731
This paper presents a multifactor approach for performance assessment of Water Users Associations (WUAs) in Uzbekistan in order to identify the drivers for improved and efficient performance of WUAs. The study was carried out in the Fergana Valley where the WUAs were created along the South Fergana Main Canal during the last 10 years. The farmers and the employees of 20 WUAs were questioned about the WUAs’ activities and the quantitative and qualitative data were obtained. This became a base for the calculation of 36 indicators divided into 6 groups: Water supply, technical conditions, economic conditions, social and cultural conditions, organizational conditions and information conditions. All the indicators assessed with a differentiated point system adjusted for subjectivity of several of them give the total maximal result for the associations of 250 point. The WUAs of the Fergana Valley showed the score between 145 and 219 points, what reflects a highly diverse level of the WUAs performance in the region. The analysis of the indicators revealed that the key points of the WUA’s success are the organizational and institutional conditions including the participatory factors and awareness of both the farmers and employees about the work of WUA. The research showed that the low performance of the WUAs is always explained by the low technical and economic conditions along with weak organization and information dissemination conditions. It is clear that it is complicated to improve technical and economic conditions immediately because they are cost-based and cost-induced. However, it is possible to improve the organizational conditions and to strengthen the institutional basis via formal and information institutions which will gradually lead to improvement of economic and technical conditions of WUAs. Farmers should be involved into the WUA Governance and into the process of making common decisions and solving common problems together via proper institutions. Their awareness can also be improved by leading additional trainings for increasing farmers’ agronomic and irrigation knowledge, teaching them water saving technologies and acquainting them with the use of water measuring equipment so it can bring reliable water supply, transparent budgeting and adequate as well as equitable water allocation to the water users.
Valleys / Organizational development / Farmer participation / Sociocultural environment / Economic aspects / Technology / Water supply / Performance indexes / Performance evaluation / Water user associations Record No:H046739
This paper analyzes the effect of the shallow water table on water use of the winter wheat (Triticumaestivum L.) that has replaced alfalfa (Medicago sativa) on the irrigated lands of the Fergana Valley,upstream of the Syrdarya River, in Central Asia. The effect of the shallow water table is investigated using HYDRUS-1D. Numerical simulations show that the contribution of the groundwater to evapotranspiration increases with a rising water table and decreases with increasing irrigation applications. Under irrigation conditions, an increase in the groundwater evapotranspiration is associated mainly with an increase in evaporation loss, causing a buildup of salinity in the crop root zone. Evaporation losses from fields planted with winter wheat after the harvest amount up to 45–47% of total evaporation thus affecting soil salinity and ecosystem health. Promoting the use of groundwater for irrigation in order to lowerthe groundwater table is suggested to achieve water savings from the change in the cropping pattern.Unlocking the potential of groundwater for irrigation in the Fergana Valley can also contribute toward managing soil salinity and improving the health and resilience of water, land and ecosystems of water,land and ecosystems (WLE).
Land management / Soil salinity / Winter wheat / Evaporation / Evapotranspiration / Crops / Irrigated land / Health / Ecosystems / River basins / Water productivity / Water use / Groundwater table Record No:H046205
While conflict and cooperation in Central Asia are mainly focused on the larger basins (Amu and Syr Darya) and the implementation of the agreement reached directly after independence (1991), here an analysis of the history of water-sharing agreements in the Isfara Basin is presented. The paper reveals that there have been fierce negotiations and renegotiations even during the Soviet Union period between the Central Asian riparian republics; agreement was reached mainly though engineering solutions that brought more water to the basin. The paper highlights that although water-sharing agreements were reached early on, the technical capability of implementing these agreements was lacking. Similarly, even after independence, agreements had been reached but lack of water control hindered their implementation.
Case studies / Cooperation / Conflict / Reservoirs / Valleys / River basins / Water allocation / Agreements / Water sharing / International waters / Water management Record No:H046188
With the global expansion of urban areas, competition over both land and water resources is steadily increasing, especially within developing countries(FAO 2012; Kuslu 2007; CER 2009). The expansion of urban areas into agricultural areas, such as in Uzbekistan, has created competition for water between farmers and non-farmers (FAO 2002, 2005). Subsequent growth of urban and peri-urban areas envisages new and expanded demands for water resources, entailing both reproductive and productive uses especially by the poor (Drechsel et al. 2006; van Koppen et al. 2006). The integration of these other, competing uses into the planning or proper design of water provision and management systems has been lacking (van Koppen et al. 2006). The agricultural sector, being the former most dominant sector in the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) was the core provider of employment and basic livelihoods. After independence in 1991, Uzbekistan experienced a political and economic transition, which resulted in transformation of water land as well as water management and social and institutional challenges, particularly for the agricultural sector. Here a case study on the urbanizing Ferghana district in Uzbekistan is presented which highlights rising competition for water and the associated gender dimensions of the changing water management structure. While traditionally Water User Associations (WUAs) are set up to govern and manage water resources for farmers, the urban expansion into agricultural areas means that WUAs now must integrate the concerns of nonfarmers and multiple water uses in peri-urban communities. Given the expansion and increased importance of kitchen gardens for the majority of the rural population for livelihood security, it is necessary to reprioritize on their respective water needs and towards better integration in WUAs. Donors as well as the government have to adapt their policies, project and recommendations to these changes.
Case studies / Gender / Water user associations / Water use / Multiple use / Farmers / Urban areas / Water management / Water resources Record No:H046644
While there has been a regional and international focus on large reservoirs in Central Asia, smaller transboundary reservoirs within the Ferghana Valley have been overlooked. The valley is shared by Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan, three riparian countries of the upstream Syr Darya. Located within the valley are many small transboundary tributaries and reservoirs. An analysis of the initial proposals and documented negotiations for four of these reservoirs reveals a changing pattern of benefit sharing. These past approaches call into question the argument that the boundaries set by the Soviets did not matter, as well as the assumption that Moscow as a hegemon planned infrastructure in order to divide and rule Central Asia.
Case studies / River basins / Irrigation development / Water management / Water resources / International waters Record No:H046631
Managed aquifer recharge: the solution for water shortages in the Fergana Valley. In Russian Author(s): Karimov, Akmal; Smakhtin, Vladimir; Mavlonov, A.; Borisov, V.; Gracheva, I.; Miryusupov, F.; Djumanov, J.; Khamzina, T.; Ibragimov, R.; Abdurahmanov, B. Published year: 2013. Publisher(s): Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI) Pages: 62p. (Also in English) Series: IWMI Research Report 151
Doubling of population, since the 1970s, in the Aral Sea Basin of Central Asia led to the increased demand for water and energy. The shift of the key upstream reservoir on the Naryn River, main tributary of the Syrdarya River, from irrigation to hydropower generation reduced available water for irrigation in the summer and created excessive flows in the winter. The downstream reservoirs do not have free capacities for storing the excessive winter flows. This report examines the possibility of additional subsurface storages of water in a part of the Syrdarya River Basin, the Fergana Valley. The report aims to bring the attention of policymakers to alternative development of basin water management, which requires cooperation of riparian states in the use of water and energy.
Models / Soil profile / Irrigated land / Infiltration / Artificial recharge / Reservoirs / Wells / Water storage / Groundwater extraction / Groundwater development / Canals / Groundwater irrigation / Downstream / Upstream / Flow discharge / River basins / Valleys / Water shortage / Recharge / Aquifers / Water management Record No:H046102
Determination of snow cover from MODIS data for the Tibetan Plateau Region Author(s): Tang, B.-H.; Shrestha, B.; Li, Z.-L.; Liu, G.; Ouyang, H.; Gurung, D. R.; Amarnath, Giriraj; Aung, K. S. Published year: 2013. Journal: International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation Pages: 21:356-365
This paper addresses a snow-mapping algorithm for the Tibetan Plateau region using Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data. Accounting for the effects of the atmosphere and terrain on the satellite observations at the top of the atmosphere (TOA), particularly in the rugged Tibetan Plateau region, the surface reflectance is retrieved from the TOA reflectance after atmospheric and topographic corrections. To reduce the effect of the misclassification of snow and cloud cover, a normalized difference cloud index (NDCI) model is proposed to discriminate snow/cloud pixels, separate from the MODIS cloud mask product MOD35. The MODIS land surface temperature (LST) product MOD11 L2 is also used to ensure better accuracy of the snow cover classification. Comparisons of the resulting snow cover with those estimated from high spatial-resolution Landsat ETM+ data and obtained from MODIS snow cover product MOD10 L2 for the Mount Everest region for different seasons in 2002, show that the MODIS snow cover product MOD10 L2 overestimates the snow cover with relative error ranging from 20.1% to 55.7%, whereas the proposed algorithm estimates the snow cover more accurately with relative error varying from 0.3% to 9.8%. Comparisons of the snow cover estimated with the proposed algorithm and those obtained from MOD10 L2 product with in situ measurements over the Hindu Kush-Himalayan (HKH) region for December 2003 and January 2004 (the snowy seasons) indicate that the proposed algorithm can map the snow cover more accurately with greater than 90% agreement.
Algorithms / Indicators / Mapping / Data / Satellite surveys / Cloud cover / Snow cover Record No:H045039
Water and security in Central Asia: solving a Rubik's Cube Author(s): Stucki, V.; Wegerich, Kai; Rahaman, M. M.; Varis, O. Published year: 2013. Publisher(s): London, UK: Routledge Pages: 192 Series: Routledge Special Issues on Water Policy and Governance
Environmental effects / Privatization / Irrigation management / Case studies / Valleys / Upstream / Water quality / Cooperation / Water sharing / Agreements / International waters / Water availability / Water scarcity / Virtual water / Upstream / River basins / Energy generation / Water security / Water management / Water resources Record No:H046071
The management of water resources according to hydrological boundaries at different implementation levels (river basin, irrigation system, or water user association) is promoted internationally. This approach to water management, especially for the basin, is starting to be challenged from different perspectives: representation within basins. appropriateness for basins in the south, and the challenges of merging boundaries for surface and groundwater sources. It has been challenged only recently in relation to its appropriateness for indigenously constructed (informal) irrigation systems. To these critiques, this paper adds the historical development and originally intended purpose of engineered irrigation systems and therefore calls into question whether it is always possible to introduce hydrological boundary management in the formal systems in Central Asia.
Case studies / Valleys / Irrigation systems / River basins / Hydrological factors / Water user associations / Water use / Water management Record No:H046080
The river basin management approach in the Syr Darya basin fragmented after the disintegration of the Soviet Union. However, this approach had already created dependencies between riparian states such as transboundary water control infrastructure. At the national level, these states hardly cooperate, but at the province and district level, especially in the Ferghana Valley, which is shared by Kyrgyzstan., Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan, cooperation continues. This paper analyzes transboundary cooperation in the Ferghana Valley. On the periphery, conflict and cooperation still take place on both water management infrastructure and water sharing. The greatest hindrance to cooperation- border control -is outside the realm at water management, but is key given the property rights to water management infrastructure in the neighboring riparian states.
Pumps / Case studies / River basin management / Valleys / Cooperation / Conflict / Agreements / Water sharing / International waters / Infrastructure / Water management Record No:H046079
Irrigation management transfer (IMT) reforms in most transition economies of Central Asia have largely relied on the funding and expertise of multiple international aid providers. Such reforms are aimed at the establishment of water users associations; however, progress has remained slow and patchy due to poor aid coordination and poor knowledge regarding what works and what does not. This paper argues that a sector-wide impact study is needed to better inform and consolidate local IMT reform. Placing the discourse within the larger domain of evaluation research, this article looks into the approaches, tools, and practical implications of such an impact study.
Models / Impact assessment / Research projects / Farmers / Water users / Water user associations / Water management / Case studies / Privatization / Irrigation management Record No:H046078
In discussing the 1997 UN Watercourse Convention, McCaffrey (1998) gave a theoretical example of the late-developer problem. This paper complements that theoretical example with a real case study of the Zerafshan basin in Central Asia. While McCalliey addressed the water quantity issue in his example, the focus here also includes water pollution. The aim of the paper is to analyze some of the provisions of the mechanisms in the field of international water law- the Helsinki Rules and the UN Watercourses Convention- for water quantity and quality aspects, as well as to provide an insight into the basin regarding these two aspects.
International organizations / Agreements / Environmental effects / Water shortage / Water scarcity / Water availability / Water law / Water pollution / Stream flow / Downstream / Upstream / River basins / Water quality Record No:H046077
River basins / Energy / Agreements / Flow discharge / Virtual water / Food security / Water management / Water resources Record No:H046072
Managed aquifer recharge: the solution for water shortages in the Fergana Valley Author(s): Karimov, Akmal; Smakhtin, Vladimir; Mavlonov, A.; Borisov, V.; Gracheva, I.; Miryusupov, F.; Djumanov, J.; Khamzina, T.; Ibragimov, R.; Abdurahmanov, B. Published year: 2013. Publisher(s): Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI) Pages: 51p. (Also in Russian) Series: IWMI Research Report 151
Doubling of population, since the 1970s, in the Aral Sea Basin of Central Asia led to the increased demand for water and energy. The shift of the key upstream reservoir on the Naryn River, main tributary of the Syrdarya River, from irrigation to hydropower generation reduced available water for irrigation in the summer and created excessive flows in the winter. The downstream reservoirs do not have free capacities for storing the excessive winter flows. This report examines the possibility of additional subsurface storages of water in a part of the Syrdarya River Basin, the Fergana Valley. The report aims to bring the attention of policymakers to alternative development of basin water management, which requires cooperation of riparian states in the use of water and energy.
Models / Soil profile / Irrigated land / Infiltration / Artificial recharge / Reservoirs / Wells / Water storage / Groundwater extraction / Groundwater development / Canals / Groundwater irrigation / Downstream / Upstream / Flow discharge / River basins / Valleys / Water shortage / Recharge / Aquifers / Water management Record No:H046061
Like many irrigation schemes in Central Asia, the one in Khorezm faces a two-fold challenge: on the one side, the severe problems inherited from the past need to be remedied and on the other side, the rising supply–demand gap driven by sharpening competition for water and climate change must be dealt with. Located in the lower part of the Amu Darya basin, Khorezm irrigation and drainage scheme is particularly vulnerable to supply–demand gaps. Promising solutions towards adaptation comprise modified strategies of land and water use towards higher efficiency and flexibility in combination with measures to lessen the constraints of the system itself, which was initially designed for the management of a few, large and uniform production units and not for many diverse and small units. Solutions consist of flexible, modeling-based approaches, re-arranging institutional settings and establishing economic incentive systems. Flexible modeling allows an integrated use of surface and groundwater resources avoiding or minimizing the impact of water stress on yield. Institutional settings strengthen the position of water users via improved participation and transparency of processes in Water Consumers Associations (WCAs). Economic measures support sustainable resource use strategies and improve the functioning of WCAs. The findings could be extrapolated to other regions of Central Asia with similar conditions and challenges.
Institutions / Vegetation / Soil moisture / Soil water / Salinity control / Rice / River basins / Irrigation scheduling / Irrigation management / Groundwater resources / Surface water / Water scarcity / Water management Record No:H045861
Accurate quantification of the rate of groundwater (GW) recharge, a pre-requisite for the sustainable management of GW resources, needs to capture complex processes, such as the upward flow of water under shallow GW conditions, which are often disregarded when estimating recharge at a larger scale. This paper provides (1) a method to determine GW recharge at the field level, (2) a consequent procedure for up-scaling these findings from field to irrigation scheme level and (3) an assessment of the impacts of improved irrigation efficiency on the rate of GW recharge. The study is based on field data from the 2007 growing season in a Water Users Association (WUA Shomakhulum) in Khorezm district of Uzbekistan, Central Asia, an arid region that is characterized by a predominance of cotton, wheat and rice under irrigation. Previous qualitative studies in the region reported irrigation water supplies far above the crop water requirements, which cause GW recharge. A field water balance model was adapted to the local irrigation scheme; recharge was considered to be a fraction of the irrigation water losses, determined as the difference between net and gross irrigation requirements. Capillary rise contribution from shallow GW levels was determined with the HYDRUS-1D model. Six hydrological response units (HRUs) were created based on GW levels and soil texture using GIS and remote sensing techniques. Recharge calculated at the field level was up-scaled first to these HRUs and then to the whole WUA. To quantify the impact of improved irrigation efficiency on recharge rates, four improved irrigation efficiency scenarios were developed. The area under cotton had the second highest recharge (895 mm) in the peak irrigation period, after rice with 2,514 mm. But with a low area share of rice in the WUA of lt;1 %, rice impacted the total recharge only marginally. Due to the higher recharge rates of cotton, which is grown on about 40 % of the cropped area, HRUs with a higher share of cotton showed higher recharge (9.6 mm day-1 during August) than those with a lower share of cotton (4.4 mm day-1). The high recharge rates in the cotton fields were caused by its water requirements and the special treatment given to this crop by water management planners due to its strategic importance in the country. The scenario simulations showed that seasonal recharge under improved irrigation efficiency could potentially be reduced from 4 mm day-1 (business-as-usual scenario) to 1.4 mm day-1 (scenario with maximum achievable efficiency). The combination of field-level modeling/monitoring and GIS approaches improved recharge estimates because spatial variability was accounted for, which can assist water managers to assess the impact of improved irrigation efficiencies on groundwater recharge. This impact assessment enables managers to identify options for a recharge policy, which is an important component of integrated management of surface and groundwater resources.
Evapotranspiration / Cropping patterns / Water user associations / Irrigation efficiency / Irrigation schemes / Remote sensing / GIS / Models / Water balance / Groundwater recharge Record No:H045847
Water demand for irrigated agriculture is increasing against limited availability of fresh water resources in the lower reaches of the Amu Darya River e.g., Khorezm region of Uzbekistan. Future scenarios predict that Khorezm region will receive fewer water supplies due to climate change, transboundary conflicts and hence farmers have to achieve their yield targets with less water. We conducted a study and used AquaCrop model to develop the optimum and deficit irrigation schedule under shallow groundwater conditions (1.0–1.2 m) in the study region. Cotton being a strategic crop in the region was used for simulations. Capillary rise substantially contributes to crop-water requirements and is the key characteristic of the regional soils. However, AquaCrop does not simulate capillary rise contribution, thereby HYDRUS-1D model was used in this study for the quantification of capillary rise contribution. Alongside optimal irrigation schedule for cotton, deficit strategies were also derived in two ways: proportional reduction from each irrigation event (scenario-A) throughout the growth period as well as reduced water supply at specific crop growth stages (scenario-B). For scenario-A, 20, 40, 50 and 60 % of optimal water was deducted from each irrigation quota whereas for scenario-B irrigation events were knocked out at different crop growth stages (stage 1(emergence), stage 2 (vegetative), stage 3 (flowering) and stage 4 (yield formation and ripening)). For scenario-A, 0, 14, 30 and 48 % of yield reduction was observed respectively. During stress at the late crop development stage, a reduced water supply of 12 % resulted in a yield increase of 8 %. Conversely, during stress at the earlier crop development stage, yield loss was 17–18 %. During water stress at the late ripening stage, no yield loss was observed. Results of this study provide guidelines for policy makers to adopt irrigation schedule depending upon availability of irrigation water.
Evapotranspiration / Models / Cotton / Crop yield / Water supply / Groundwater table / Irrigation water / Irrigated farming / River basins / Water scarcity / Irrigation scheduling Record No:H045846
A ‘farmer-centric’ innovative institutional mechanism, a public-private partnership, was created and strengthened, in the Fergana valley of Central Asia, for facilitating communication between farmers and researchers, and to disseminate knowledge on improved agronomic and irrigation management practices to improve water productivity at field level. As a result, yields of cotton from the twenty five demonstration sites in the three countries of Fergana valley - Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan – were, on the average, 28% higher than the average yield of cotton in the valley, suggesting that the proposed institutional mechanism was very effective in dissemination of information to farmers. Yields from neighboring farmers of demonstration fields were 14% higher than the average yields. In addition, demonstration site farmers used, on the average, 20% less water than the non-project farmers. Two independent external reviewers stated that this innovative public-private mechanism was very effective in disseminating information on improving water productivity at plot level to farmers, and suggested that the focus in the future should be on devising effective policy and economic instruments for financial sustainability of the innovation cycle after the donor support is withdrawn.
Institutions / Water user associations / Irrigation systems / Irrigation water / Cotton / Crop yield / Information dissemination / Farmers / Water productivity / Valleys / Public-private cooperation / Agricultural extension Record No:H045623
Understanding the spatial–temporal patterns of water quality parameters and apportioning the sources of water pollution are important for water management. Within the Zerafshan basin a basin efficiency approach is practiced. Here water quality data for a 30 year period are presented and analysed according to spatial distribution utilising box plots and cluster analysis. The results show quality declines in its middle and lower reaches due to return flows from intensively irrigated agricultural region as well as a ‘‘Hot spot’’ with organic and nutrient pollution due to return flows from industrial effluent and municipal wastewater. Comparison between upstream and downstream sites shows an increase of salinity and COD concentrations as well as a more sulphate-rich and chloride-rich composition of the downstream waters. The application of box plots, the Seasonal Mann–Kendall Test and the Mann–Kendall Trend in combination show a moderate increase in river water quality due to the reduction of industrial discharges after the collapse of the Soviet Union. However, during this period chloride has a strong decreasing trend which is connected to increased reuse of drainage and return waters. Overall the lower Zerafshan can be described as a collector for water pollutants causing water quality problems for local water supply. The outcomes support the more general debate on Zerafshan water quality with reliable and more detailed information and provide information on water quality issues for the inclusion in the basin efficiency discussions.
Drainage / Salinity / Irrigation efficiency / Irrigated agriculture / Industrial wastewater / Water pollution / Water quality / River basins Record No:H045435
The performance of furrow irrigation systems in terms of application efficiency, runoff ratio, and water requirement efficiency were evaluated at nine different sites within the Provinces of Fergana (6 sites) and Andijon (3 sites) in Uzbekistan. A total of 46 irrigation events were evaluated during the year 2009, whereas only a total of 8 irrigation events (at 3 sites) were evaluated during the year 2010. Most of the selected fields have slopes greater than 0.005; hence, the average runoff volume from these fields was 39% of the total volume of water applied to the fields, indicating problems with selection of appropriate furrow flow rates under the given set of field conditions. For several fields, the seasonal volume of water applied was significantly different than the irrigation norms specified for the site. Though some of the farmers followed the irrigation advisory service on when to irrigate, there was a large mismatch between the volume of water applied and the volume of water deficit within the crop root zone. Reliability, in terms of magnitude and duration of flow rate received at the fields, was a major issue at all the sites. Considerable fluctuations were observed in the flow rates received at all the field sites during each irrigation event. In addition, the average flow rate received at the field sites varied considerably between irrigation events making it difficult for farmers to manage irrigation water. Farmers that had high watertable (less than 100 cm from the ground surface) still applied large volumes of water, resulting in low application efficiency. Several recommendations for improving the performance of furrow irrigation systems in Uzbekistan are provided.
Soil moisture / Water requirements / Runoff / Valleys / Irrigation water / Furrow irrigation / Irrigation systems Record No:H045581
This article focuses on cooperative adaptation strategies at the community, water user association, district, and national levels along the Khojabakirgansai, a small transboundary tributary of the Syr Darya in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. Data were collected in the basin through in-depth expert interviews, site visits, and household surveys, and were triangulated with climate change data from the available literature. Basin inhabitants cooperate on extreme events that are exacerbated by climate change, including water scarcity, droughts, and flash floods. Water demand and efficiency are key issues driven by population growth, expansion of croplands, and deteriorating canal infrastructure. Lessons learned can be considered in other small transboundary tributaries in the Ferghana Valley and Central Asia, which demonstrate how, despite the international level of tension on water issues in the region, local communities can find solutions. Cooperation, however, does not always improve the basin environment or living standards, and is likely to be strained in the coming decades by climate and population trends, among other issues.
Flooding / Drought / Water scarcity / Water user associations / Cooperation / Adaptation / Climate change / International waters / River basins / Water management Record No:H045076
Irrigation performance assessments are important tools that irrigation service providers at various levels of the water management hierarchy can use for monitoring, benchmarking and self-improvement. Despite the recognition that irrigation performance can and should be assessed from a variety of perspectives, the perspectives of the users, farmers, have received surprising little attention. This is even more apparent given the widespread context of irrigation management transfer reforms throughout the world aiming at effective user empowerment through farmer-owned and driven water users associations. This paper attempts to partially fill this gap by exploring and sensitizing farmers’ views about irrigation service and related performance dimensions using qualitative research methods. Based on focus group discussions with a purposive sample of farmers from a range of water users’ associations in Central Asia and a grounded theory approach the study lays a conceptual foundation for future practical applications.
Economic aspects / Farmers / Qualitative analysis / Research methods / Water user associations / Performance evaluation / Privatization / Irrigation management Record No:H044334
Case studies / Privatization / Irrigation management / Water management Record No:H045056
Modelling policy alternatives toward managed aquifer recharge in the Fergana Valley, Central Asia Author(s): Karimov, Akmal; Mavlonov, A.; Miryusupov, F.; Gracheva, I.; Borisov, V.; Abdurahmonov, B. Published year: 2012. Journal: Water International Pages: 37(4):380-394. (Special issue on quot;How hydrological models support informed decision making in developing countriesquot; with contributions by IWMI authors)
Storing flow of the Syrdarya River in the aquifers of the upstream Fergana Valley in winter and recovery of this water in summer is examined as a solution for competing demands between upstream hydropower and downstream irrigation. Modelling of the Isfara and Sokh aquifers suggests the potential of reducing the Syrdarya River flow to the Fergana Valley downstream by 540 Mm3 in winter and increasing it by 540 Mm3 in summer. Implementing the proposed strategy in only these two aquifers would cover over 25% of the summer water deficit in the Syrdarya River downstream.
Reservoirs / Irrigation water / Water use / Conjunctive use / Water supply / Water management / Water power / Policy making / Models / Upstream / Downstream / Rivers / Valleys / Groundwater recharge / Aquifers Record No:H045025
Asia accounts for 70% of the world’s irrigated area and is home to some of the oldest and largest irrigation schemes. While these irrigation schemes played an important role in ensuring food security for billions of people in the past, their current state of affairs leaves much to be desired. This paper takes forward the IWMI–FAO–ADB (Asian Development Bank) recommendation of a five pronged approach for revitalizing Asia’s irrigation and provides a region specific road map for doing this. The underlying principle of these multiple strategies is the belief that the public institutions at the heart of irrigation management in Asia need to give up comfortable rigidity and engage with individual users’ needs and the demands placed by larger societal chang.
Public-private cooperation / Irrigated farming / Water rates / Water demand / Irrigation schemes / Irrigation systems / Groundwater irrigation Record No:H044973
This paper tells the story of trade-off between hydropower and irrigation and its implications for groundwater use in Syrdarya basin in Central Asia. With the independence of the central Asian republics, this trade-off has become a transboundary issue. Efforts to coordinate bilateral action using integrated water resources management (IWRM) principles of basin-wide cooperation have not yet yielded the hoped for results. This paper shows that there could be a ‘second best’ option of solving at least part of this transboundary problem by ‘banking’ winter flows released for hydropower production in Kyrgyzstan in the underground aquifers of Uzbekistan’s Fergana Valley and extracting it for irrigation in the summer months.
Valleys / Water power / Energy generation / International waters / River basin management / Water budget / Groundwater development / History / Water management Record No:H044972
The management of water resources according to hydrological boundaries at different implementation levels (river basin, irrigation system, or water user association) is promoted internationally. This approach to water management, especially for the basin, is starting to be challenged from different perspectives: representation within basins, appropriateness for basins in the south, and the challenges of merging boundaries for surface and groundwater sources. It has been challenged only recently in relation to its appropriateness for indigenously constructed (informal) irrigation systems. To these critiques, this paper adds the historical development and originally intended purpose of engineered irrigation systems and therefore calls into question whether it is always possible to introduce hydrological boundary management in the formal systems in CentralAsia.
Valleys / Catchment areas / Water user associations / Maps / Case studies / River basins / Irrigation systems / Hydrology / Water management Record No:H044914
The river basin management approach in the Syr Darya basin fragmented after the disintegration of the Soviet Union. However, this approach had already created dependencies between riparian states, such as transboundary water control infrastructure. At the national level, these states hardly cooperate, but at the province and district level, especially in the Ferghana Valley, which is shared by Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan, cooperation continues. This paper analyzes transboundary cooperation in the Ferghana Valley. On the periphery, con ict and cooperation still take place on both water management infrastructure and water sharing. The greatest hindrance to cooperation—border control—is outside the realm of water management, but is key given the property rights to water management infrastructure in the neighbouring riparian states.
Pumping / Case studies / Agreements / International cooperation / International waters / Valleys / Water management / River basin management Record No:H044913
Irrigation management transfer (IMT) reforms in most transition economies of Central Asia have largely relied on the funding and expertise of multiple international aid providers. Such reforms are aimed at the establishment of water users associations; however, progress has remained slow and patchy due to poor aid coordination and poor knowledge regarding what works and what does not. This paper argues that a sector-wide impact study is needed to better inform and consolidate local IMT reform. Placing the discourse within the larger domain of evaluation research, this article looks into the approaches, tools, and practical implications of such an impact study.
Models / Farmers / Research projects / Impact assessment / Water user associations / Case studies / Privatization / Water management / Irrigation management Record No:H044912
In discussing the 1997 UN Watercourses Convention, McCaffrey (1998) gave a theoretical example of the late-developer problem. This paper complements that theoretical example with a real case study of the Zerafshan basin in Central Asia. While McCaffrey addressed the water quantity issue in his example, the focus here also includes water pollution. The aim of the paper is to analyze some of the provisions of the mechanisms in the field of international water law—the Helsinki Rules and the UN Watercourses Convention—for water quantity and quality aspects, as well as to provide an insight into the basin regarding these two aspects.
Environmental effects / Stream flow / Watercourses / Water scarcity / Water availability / Water law / Water pollution / Case studies / Upstream / River basins / Rules / Water quality Record No:H044911
Case studies / International waters / Virtual water / River basins / Natural resources / Energy resources / Food security / Water resources Record No:H044910
Contemporary water management decisions use many sources and forms of data. The paper discusses the implementation results of data management activities in the water sector carried out in five countries of the Central Asia region. Geoinformation systems, remote sensing tools and databases have been applied worldwide for improving water resources management with differing levels of success. Water management organisations, equipped with data management tools will have better capacities to adapt their decision-making in the changing availability and scarcity of water resources. Application of data management tools for improving collection, storage and processing of data and information are a first step towards improved water governance.
Land cover / Land use / Irrigation systems / Satellite imagery / GIS / Remote sensing / Databases / History / Data management / International waters / Water governance / Organizations / Water management Record No:H044921
Environmental health / Irrigation water / Water user associations / Crop production / Canals / Water use / Domestic gardens / Income / Households / Gender / Rural population / Measurement / Project design / Impact assessment Record No:H046469
As a result of the massive irrigation development during the Soviet Union era and intensive chemization of agriculture, the surface runoff quality has been degraded in this arid and endorheic region. Moreover hydraulically related groundwater has also been affected. Excessive irrigation has lead to land salinization, which now threatens the soil quality of significant areas where crop yields would be at risk in the future. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, institutional changes have been undertaken for the management of natural resources and water infrastructure. At present, underdeveloped and inadequate systems have been practiced with respect to groundwater use and management. This paper analyzes the present extent of groundwater resources with consideration to their reserves, quality evolution, and to technical, institutional and transboundary management practices in Uzbekistan.
USSR / Runoff / Monitoring / Government agencies / Environmental effects / Hydrogeology / Irrigation / Irrigated farming / Salinity / Water supply / Water use / Drinking water / Freshwater / International waters / Wells / Groundwater extraction / Groundwater management / Aquifers / Water management Record No:H044798
A water accounting procedure to determine the water savings potential of the Fergana Valley Author(s): Karimov, Akmal; Molden, David; Khamzina, T.; Platonov, Alexander; Ivanov, Y. Published year: 2012. Journal: Agricultural Water Management Pages: 108:61-72. (Special issue on quot;Irrigation efficiency and productivity: scales, systems and sciencequot; with contributions by IWMI authors)
The Syrdarya River basin in Central Asia exhibits symptoms of scarcity because of growing competition between hydropower upstream and environment, cities and agriculture downstream. Different approaches to water management, based on water savings in agriculture could relieve the stress of competition, yet keep alive a vibrant agriculture. The Fergana Valley, a highly productive area within the upstream of the Syrdarya River, was analyzed to determine the water savings potential of agriculture. This paper used a water accounting procedure to identify both the scope for savings and the strategies to realize those gains. Signi cant nonproductive depletion of water at 681–4164millionm3 (Mm3) was identi ed in the formof evaporation, ows to sinks and pollution. Thewater-saving potential is estimated at 2823Mm3 annually, which is about 10% of the total in ow into the area, through a range of practical approaches. This strategy would bring regional bene ts by reallocation of surplus winter ow from the upstream for summer use in the downstream.
Groundwater recharge / Water storage / River basins / Downstream / Upstream / Water power / Conjunctive use / Water use / Water productivity / Water conservation / Water accounting / Water management Record No:H044811
Cotton water productivity was studied in Fer- gana Valley of Central Asia during the years of 2009, 2010 and 2011. Data was collected from 18 demonstration fields (13 in Uzbekistan, 5 in Taji- kistan). The demonstration field farmers imple- mented several improved agronomic and irriga- tion water management practices. The average values of crop yield, estimated crop consump- tive use (ETa) and total water applied (TWA) for the demonstration sites were, respectively, 3700 kg/ha, 6360 m3/ha, and 8120 m3/ha. The range of values for TWA and ETa were, respectively, 5000 m3/ha to 12,000 m3/ha and 4500 m3/ha to 8000 m3/ha. A quadratic relationship was found be- tween TWA and ETa. The average yield of the adjacent fields was 3300 kg/ha, whereas the av- erage yield of cotton in Fergana Valley as a whole was 2900 kg/ha, indicating 28% and 14% increase in crop yield, respectively, from, dem- onstration fields and adjacent fields. There was no significant difference in crop yields between the wet years (2009 and 2010) and the dry year (2011), which is explained by the quadratic rela- tionship between TWA and ETa. The water pro- ductivity values ranged from 0.35 kg/m3 to 0.89 kg/m3, indicating a significant potential for im- proving water productivity through agronomic and irrigation management interventions. The ratio of average ETa divided by average TWA gave an average application efficiency of 78% (some fields under-irrigated and some fields over-irrigated), the remaining 22% of water ap- plied leaving the field. Since more than 60% of the water used for irrigation in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan is pumped from, even if all this 22% of water returns to the stream, substantial en- ergy savings would accrue from improving the average application efficiency at field level. The range of values for TWA indicates the inequity in water distribution/accessibility. Addressing this inequity would also increase water productivity at field and project level.
Farmers / Costs / Crop yield / Furrow irrigation / Groundwater / Water management / Water productivity / Cotton Record No:H045270
This article focuses on cooperative adaptation strategies at the community, water user association, district, and national levels along the Khojabakirgansai, a small transboundary tributary of the Syr Darya in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. Data were collected in the basin through in-depth expert interviews, site visits, and household surveys, and were triangulated with climate change data from the available literature. Basin inhabitants cooperate on extreme events that are exacerbated by climate change, including water scarcity, droughts, and flash floods. Water demand and efficiency are key issues driven by population growth, expansion of croplands, and deteriorating canal infrastructure. Lessons learned can be considered in other small transboundary tributaries in the Ferghana Valley and Central Asia, which demonstrate how, despite the international level of tension on water issues in the region, local communities can find solutions. Cooperation, however, does not always improve the basin environment or living standards, and is likely to be strained in the coming decades by climate and population trends, among other issues.
Flooding / Drought / Water scarcity / Water user associations / Cooperation / Adaptation / Climate change / International waters / River basins / Water management Record No:H045267
Costs / Financing / Policy / Wells / Water springs / Spate irrigation / Community involvement / Irrigation schemes / Irrigation management / Conflict / Water supply / Water saving / Water management / Research projects / Water user associations Record No:H046140
While best practice in water management typically calls for the use of a basin-level approach, specific guidance in the absence of basin-level management is fairly scant. This paper reviews the experience of the Syr Darya basin to identify insights related to second best practices for water management at scales below the basin level. This paper first presents the causes for the disintegration of river basin management within the Syr Darya, which include both changes in operation of the Toktogul reservoir and rising water demands due to shifts in agricultural production and land ownership. Focus is then devoted specifically to small transboundary tributaries, where bottom-up cooperation has continued or reemerged in recent times. This paper concludes by highlighting the limitations to singular focus on sub-basins and tributaries, suggesting a balance between more intense cooperation and water control on tributaries and a loose overarching framework at the basin level.
Agricultural production / International waters / Water use / Water allocation / Institutions / Hydrology / Reservoirs / River basin management / Water management Record No:H044659
The aim of the research project is to lift Afghanistan out of the identified knowledge gap on its water resources and therefore enable Afghanistan to remove her barrier to sustainable water resource development and management in the Amu Darya basin. At the same time it is anticipated to provide transparency of the potential impact of water resource development plans as well as of on-going projects to downstream riparian states as well as the donor community – which so far seems to take an administrative rather than a resource boundary approach.The duration of the project is anticipated to be 3 years. Because of its international position IWMI Central Asia will take the lead in data generation and analysis and will collaborate with research and implementing agencies in Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.
Irrigated sites / Water management / Water resources / Research projects / River basins Record No:H046036
Land degradation of agricultural areas in Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, specifically due to soil salinization, has resulted in significant declines in agricultural productivity. This study builds upon previous limited work on ‘Bright Spots’ by focusing on specific farming enterprises in the two target countries. The objective of this study was to identify factors that contributed to the enhanced performance of ‘Bright Spots’ in each of the target countries and based on this evaluation assess possible options for expansion and out-scaling of ‘Bright Spots’ to larger areas. The analysis confirms that while the resource endowment in terms of quality of land was almost identical for both the ‘Bright Spots’ and Control objects studied, the performance of the former was superior with respect to productivity and profitability. An analysis of biophysical and economic indicators of ‘Bright Spot’ farms in Uzbekistan indicated that the profitability of cotton production was predominantly dependent on inputs to the production system that had a significant impact on groundwater depth below the soil surface. In order to out-scale ‘Bright Spots’ innovative approaches in addressing existing knowledge gaps that link the products of research, and in this case ‘induce innovation’, with the majority of beneficiaries are required. This may take the form of creating linkages between farmers, researchers and markets through the formation of learning alliances. In addition, the development of enabling policies that address issues related to inequitable access to land and resources that would enable farmers to invest in rehabilitation is required. The provision of incentives which trigger private investment in rehabilitation would potentially stimulate individuals into addressing resource degradation. This would require access to financial instruments to enable investment to take place.
Public policy / Land ownership / Land resources / Economic aspects / Crop production / Farmers associations / Statistical methods / Soil quality / Irrigated sites / Indicators / Socioeconomic environment / Marginal farms / Water productivity Record No:H044981
Poor on-farm irrigation practices and rising groundwater table depths are the major reasons for low cotton yields in the Sardarya province of Uzbekistan. To ensure sustainability of cotton production in the area, precise calculations of irrigation requirements are needed to optimize crop yields and to keep groundwater table depth below the root zone to avoid soil salinization. To determine optimal groundwater table depth and irrigation amounts for the Sardarya province of Uzbekistan, the Soil–Water–Atmosphere–Plant (SWAP) model was used. SWAP was calibrated and validated using measured data from an experimental cotton field during the agricultural year of 2006 and 2007. The calibrated SWAP model was then used to simulate optimal groundwater table depth and irrigation amounts. The simulation results show that for the existing conditions in the study area, a groundwater table depth of approximately 200 cm together with an irrigation application of 2500m3 ha1 will be the most appropriate combination for optimal cotton yields ( 3.0 t ha1). However, to achieve maximum potential yields of cotton (5–6 t ha1), leaching of excessive salts from the root zone through freshwater application would be imperative. This would require rehabilitation of the existing drainage network in the area.
Evapotranspiration / Salinity / Irrigation practices / Water balance / Soil water content / Groundwater table / Calibration / Simulation models / Cotton Record No:H042963
This article explores the cooperation after independence on four Central Asian transboundary rivers. The paper shows that, even though the Central Asian states agreed in 1992 to continue with the basic water-sharing principles, new agreements had to be made. New agreements were only made in basins with large-scale water-control infrastructure, which have transboundary significance or are transboundary themselves. The inequitable water allocation between the riparian states has continued and has not triggered new agreements.
Irrigation management / Water allocation / Water use / International waters / River basins Record No:H043963
The division of Central Asia into several independent states, and the transition from the centrally planned economy to a market economy in the majority of those states, affected all sectors and all social levels in the region. One such example is irrigation. Centrally planned and financed from Moscow, on-farm irrigation systems were managed by collective farms. The process of decentralization through the dismantling of collective farms led to a restructuring of services and infrastructure throughout Central Asia. Water users associations (WUAs) have been established to transfer on-farm irrigation management to farmers throughout the region, including Uzbekistan. Many women in Uzbekistan actively participate in farming activities, so their role in the on-farm irrigation restructuring process is important. Yet, the findings from this study suggest that participation of women is very limited in WUAs as very few women are registered as land owners. Because of high levels of migration by men to other countries, farm activities are mostly carried out by women. Despite this, womens decision-making power within their farms is limited.
Economic aspects / Water user associations / River basins / Case studies / Institutions / Irrigation management / Irrigated farming / Agriculture / s participation / Womenapos / Gender Record No:H044728
Agriculture is at the forefront of the development objectives of the republics of Central Asia (CA). Since independence in 1991, these countries have undergone transitions from being centrally planned economies to market-oriented systems, which did not include the creation of agricultural extension systems. This paper provides information on the current status of the agricultural extension systems in CA with special reference to Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. We reviewed the existing extension strategies, donor- and state-driven initiatives to revitalize the agricultural extension systems, informal linkages that nongovernmental organizations play in helping a limited number of farmers, and provided recommendations on ways to further improve the agricultural extension services in CA. The information related to each country was analyzed separately. This is because, after independence, each republic in CA had initiated their agricultural reforms with specific objectives and has now established their unique agricultural systems that differ contextually. However, due to having the same history and agricultural system that existed during the Soviet times, we tried to give a historical perspective to the unified agricultural extension system that existed before independence.
Financing / Surveys / Water user associations / Agricultural policy / Agricultural research / Government departments / Institutions / History / Agricultural extension Record No:H044621
Purpose – The paper seeks to examine the impact of social exclusion on individuals’ propensity to be employed and how, if employed, social exclusion affects individuals’ perceived job insecurity and the likelihood of being covered by social insurance in their jobs.Design/methodology/approach – Using the United Nations Development Program/United Nations Children Fund 2009 survey data from Eastern Europe and Central Asia, the paper employs comprehensive econometric methods that overcome challenges posed by endogeneity of social exclusion in labour market outcomes, self-selection into employment, and the interdependency between perceptions of job security and social insurance coverage.Findings – Results suggest that socially excluded individuals face hurdles in securing jobs and exhibit higher risk of job loss. Further, results suggest that a holistic educational policy could help promote social inclusion.Practical implications – Formulation of policies aimed at promoting social inclusion and improved labour market outcomes should not be done in isolation; rather they should be based on a holistic understanding of the multi-faceted nature of social exclusion.Originality/value – The originality of the analysis is that it takes into account the multi-dimensional nature of social exclusion by treating social exclusion as an outcome of a diverse set of an individual’s socio-economic characteristics that ultimately shape the way they feel about their exclusion or inclusion in their societies. This gives an indication of the types of people that are socially excluded and form the group for which a further investigation of labour market outcomes is conducted.
Policy / Market economies / Models / Statistics / Surveys / Social problems / Social security / Risks / Employment / Labour market Record No:H044432
Facing competition for limited water resources with domestic, industrial, hydropower and environmental uses, agriculture has to adapt to produce more food with less water. This paper proposes to apply water accounting procedure to identify the scope for water productivity improvement. The Fergana Valley, a highly productive area within the upstream of the Syrdarya River Basin, was selected to examine the proposed procedure. Significant non-productive depletions of water as evaporation at 31-34% of the available water were identified in the Fergana Valley. There is also flow to sinks and pollution in the downstream at 1-5% of the gross inflow due to the changes of the river flow regime, its quantity and quality, caused by the return flow from the irrigated land and the winter hydropower releases from the upstream. Total non-productive depletions of water at 4,200-5,200 million m3 (Mm3) were identified in the form of evaporation, flows to sinks, and pollution. Proper water saving technologies to reduce non-productive depletions will improve water productivity in the Fergana Valley and increase water availability for the downstream water uses.
Evaporation / Water use / Water conservation / Water depletion / Downstream / Upstream / River basins / Water productivity / Water accounting / Water resources Record No:H044425
Water power / Irrigation / USSR / Downstream / Upstream / Surveys / Reservoirs / Canals / River basins / Political aspects / International relations / International waters Record No:H044665
Quantitative estimates of the hydrologic effects of climate change are essential for understanding and solving potential transboundary water conflicts in the Zerafshan river basin, Central Asia. This paper introduces an identification of runoff generation processes and a detection of changes in hydrological regimes supporting Mann–Kendall trend analysis for streamflows. By this, the effective available and future water resources are identified for the Zerafshan. The results for the subbasins in the upper Zerafshan and for the reference station at the upper catchment outlet indicate that glacier melt is the most significant component of river runoff. The Mann–Kendall trend analysis confirms the regime analysis with the shift in the seasonality of the discharge. Furthermore, the results of the Kendall–Theil Robust Line for predicted long-term discharge trends show a decreasing annual discharge. The experience gained during this study emphasizes the fact that the summer flood, urgently required for the large irrigation projects downstream in Uzbekistan, is reduced and more water will be available in spring. Additionally, following the estimation of future discharges in 50 and 100 years the hydrological changes are affecting the seasonal water availability for irrigation. This analysis highlighted that water availability is decreasing and the timing of availability is changing. Hence, there will be more competition between upstream Tajikistan and downstream Uzbekistan. Planned projects within the basin might have to be reconsidered and the changed scenario of water availability needs to be properly taken into account for long-term basin scale water management.
International waters / Water availability / Stream flow / Runoff / Hydrology / River basins Record No:H043136
The Syrdarya river is an example of a transboundary basin with contradictory water use requirements between its upstream and downstream parts. Since the winter of 1992–93, the operational regime of the upstream Toktogul reservoir on the Naryn river – the main tributary of the Syrdarya – has shifted from irrigation to hydropower generation mode. This significantly increased winter flow and reduced summer flowdownstream of the reservoir. Consequently, excessive winterflowis diverted to the saline depression called Arnasai, while water for summer irrigation is lacking. This study suggests to store the excessive winter flows temporarily in the upstream aquifers of the Fergana valley and to use it subsequently for irrigation in summer. It is estimated that groundwater development for irrigation could be practiced on one-third of the irrigated land of the valley, and conjunctive use of groundwater and canal water on another third; the rest will remain under canal irrigation. This strategy will lower the groundwater table and create aquifer capacity for temporal storage of excessive water—“water banking”. This use of the term is only one of many concepts to which “water banking” or “groundwater banking” is applied. In this paper, the term is applied for temporary storing of river flow in subsurface aquifers. Pilot modeling studies for the Sokh aquifer – one of the 18 aquifers of the Fergana valley – supported that this strategy is a feasible solution for the upstream–downstream issues in the Syrdarya river basin. Field studies of water banking are required to determine the scale of adoption of the proposed strategy for each aquifer of the Fergana valley.
Water power / River basin management / Simulation models / Groundwater development / Groundwater irrigation / Groundwater recharge / Water storage / Aquifers Record No:H043181
International river basins Author(s): Treffner, J.; Mioc, V.; Wegerich, Kai Published year: 2010. Pages: pp.321-369
Recently, large-scale surface-water or canal irrigation systems have been termed ‘a sunset industry’ (Rijsberman 2003). Handing over this sunset industry by means of irrigation management transfer (IMT) policies and the creation of water user associations (WUAs) has three main objectives: to increase efficiency, equity, and empowerment. The Uzbek government, together with the international organizations, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), is currently promoting IMT and the creation of WUAs nationwide. The onset of the policy seemed to be a rational development since the former state and collective farms, which were also responsible for water management on their territories, were disintegrating, and new private farms were emerging rapidly. This study seeks to assess the potential of IMT policies by examining the broader physical, organizational, socio-economic, and political factors that might facilitate or hinder the main objectives of IMT and the creation of WUAs. These factors are addressed and analyzed separately through eight case study chapters that address questions on basin water management, the organizational capacities, and the socio-political dependencies of the district water management departments, the potential for multi-stakeholder platforms (MSPs), the politics of social network structures, and the process of land reforms. The study concludes that none of the external factors is conducive to the introduction of IMT policies and for creating WUAs. The implication is that IMT policies will not increase efficiency, equity, and empowerment, but could even worsen the water management situation. Furthermore, these policies will not increase the empowerment of either the WUAs or their members. Hence, under the current conditions, handing over the ‘sunset industry’ will not lead to a new sunrise for irrigation in Uzbekistan.
Case studies / Stakeholders / Political aspects / Water allocation / Water distribution / Irrigation systems / Policy / Privatization / Land reform / Water user associations / River basin management Record No:H043000
Training / Institutions / Farmers / Canals / Impact assessment / Water delivery / Water resources / Water management Record No:H046470
Banking on groundwater in times of change Author(s): International Water Management Institute (IWMI). Published year: 2010. Publisher(s): Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI) Pages: 7 Series: IWMI Water Policy Brief 032
Institution building / Irrigation scheduling / Simulation models / Economic evaluation / Irrigation water / Cost recovery / Participatory management / Water user associations / Water governance / Water productivity Record No:H043589
This paper critically examines the Helsinki Rules (1966), the United Nations Convention (1997) and the Berlin Rules (2004), looking at their emphasis on the principle either of equitable utilization or of doing no harm and analysing the effect of these principles on late developers within a river basin. The analysis reveals that these rules increasingly favour first developers. Today, late developers have even less incentive to subscribe to these rules, but instead must either utilize their own dominance or have a powerful ally to develop their water resources. Given the Millennium Development Goals, the existing recommendations on the sharing of international rivers should be revised so as not to favour the early developers.
International relations / Regulations / Water use / Equity / Water law / International inland waters / International waters / Watercourses / River basin development Record No:H043381
Innovative partnership: on the way to water productivity improvement Author(s): Dukhovny, V.; Mukhamedjanov, S.; Manthrithilake, Herath; Averina, L.; Kazbekov, Jusipbek; Platonov, Alexander; Ruziyev, I.; Umirzakov, G.; Sagdullayev, R. Published year: 2010. Publisher(s): Tashkent, Uzbekistan: International Water Management Institute (IWMI); Tashkent, Uzbekistan: Water Productivity Improvement at Pilot Level Project (WPI-PL); Tashkent, Uzbekistan: Scientific Information Center (SICwc) Pages: 119
Water user associations / Indicators / Economic aspects / Production costs / Maize / Wheat / Cotton / Farmers attitudes / Training / Appropriate technology / Irrigation water / Evaluation / Water use efficiency / Water productivity / Irrigation programs Record No:H043384
Water scarcity and the predicted impact of climate change will necessitate the use of alternate available water resources in agriculture, such as saline water, to narrow the gap between demand and supply of freshwater. Saline water, in combination with freshwater or alone, is used to irrigate cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) in Central Asia in summer when there are often severe freshwater shortages. The use of saline water without appropriate management can result in the accumulation of salts in the root zone with associated negative impacts on crop productivity. The accumulation of salts in surface soil layers can be managed by reducing evaporation from the soil surface. A 3-year field study on a saline soil (ECe = 13.9 dSm-1; SAR = 3.1) in the Syr-Darya River Basin of Uzbekistan was undertaken to evaluate the effects of wheat straw mulching on alternate irrigation furrows (1.5 t ha-1) and different levels of irrigation water salinity (4.0, 6.2, and 8.3 dSm-1) on soil salinity and sodicity dynamics, cotton yield, and crop water productivity. Compared to the pre-experiment status in 2005, the average increase in salinity in the upper 0.15mlayer of post-cotton 2007 soil under mulching treatments was significantly less than the non-mulching treatments. On average, there was a 20% increase in surface soil salinity of the nonmulching treatments compared to the mulching treatments. These treatment differences were less with increasing soil depth. Similar trends were observed with respect to changes in soil SAR in the top soil and across the soil profile. Cotton yield and water productivity under mulching treatments were significantly greater than non-mulched treatments at a given irrigation water salinity level. In addition, cotton yields were up to 800 kg ha-1 higher and crop water productivity (lint + seed) up to 0.47 kgm-3 greater in the mulching treatments than the farmers’ managed fields with conventional practices in the same region. These results suggest that by using appropriate combinations of water quality and mulching, there could be substantial increase in crop yield and water productivity resulting in water savings of up to 0.5m3 for each kg of cotton produced. When translated on a broader scale, such water savings are significant in a region where freshwater supplies are constrained and salt-induced water quality deterioration is widespread.
Water conservation / Yields / Cotton / Water productivity / Soil salinity / Soil sampling / Soil analysis / Mulching / Irrigation water / Salinity / Water quality / Water scarcity Record No:H043366
This paper analyses groundwater resources use and management in the socio-economic context of the Amu Darya River Basin which covers a part of the following landlocked Central Asian countries: Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. These agrarian nations for sustaining their vital agricultural productions started to use groundwater during the recent drought years (1998–2001) because of its relatively good quality and quantity and as an alternative to highly mineralized surface waters. Present extent of groundwater resources use is discussed with consideration to their reserves, quality, and institutional management and transboundary aspects within the basin. After the collapse of the centralized water resources management system and infrastructure of the former Soviet Union, new underdeveloped systems are being practiced over the whole Amu Darya River Basin. The critical situation of groundwater management in Afghanistan is also discussed. This work attempts to document the management and use of groundwater in the Amu Darya Basin and present time management realities, with fragmented and weak national and regional regulation on groundwater. Special attention is given to groundwater resources in irrigated agriculture, which increased use in all countries of the basin is due to quick access to underground resources and relatively good quality and quantity.
Livestock / Irrigated farming / Water quality / International waters / River basins / Aquifers / Groundwater management Record No:H042490
Innovative partnership: on the way to water productivity improvement. In Russian Author(s): Dukhovny, V.; Mukhamedjanov, S.; Manthrithilake, Herath; Averina, L.; Kazbekov, Jusipbek; Platonov, Alexander; Ruziyev, I.; Umirzakov, G.; Sagdullayev, R. Published year: 2010. Publisher(s): Tashkent, Uzbekistan: International Water Management Institute (IWMI); Tashkent, Uzbekistan: Water Productivity Improvement at Pilot Level Project (WPI-PL); Tashkent, Uzbekistan: Scientific Information Center (SICwc) Pages: 111
Water user associations / Indicators / Economic aspects / Production costs / Maize / Wheat / Cotton / Farmers attitudes / Training / Appropriate technology / Irrigation water / Evaluation / Water use efficiency / Water productivity / Irrigation programs Record No:H043298
Innovative partnership: on the way to water productivity improvement Author(s): Dukhovny, V.; Mukhamedjanov, S.; Manthrithilake, Herath; Averina, L.; Kazbekov, Jusipbek; Platonov, Alexander; Ruziyev, I.; Umirzakov, G.; Sagdullayev, R. Published year: 2010. Publisher(s): Tashkent, Uzbekistan: International Water Management Institute (IWMI); Tashkent, Uzbekistan: Water Productivity Improvement at Pilot Level Project (WPI-PL); Tashkent, Uzbekistan: Scientific Information Center (SICwc) Pages: 119
Water user associations / Indicators / Economic aspects / Production costs / Maize / Wheat / Cotton / Farmers attitudes / Training / Appropriate technology / Irrigation water / Evaluation / Water use efficiency / Water productivity / Irrigation programs Record No:H043297
The vulnerability of surface water sources in the Syrdarya River Basin, due to their transboundary nature and climatic change, raises the importance of the shift from canal irrigation to conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater. However, groundwater development for irrigation may increase salinity of water due to leaching of dissolved solids from the salt-affected vadoze zone and blending of freshwater and saline water. In this paper managed aquifer recharge and discharge are analyzed as a strategy to maintain the groundwater quality of the Sokh aquifer of the Fergana Valley located upstream of the Syrdarya River Basin. Field studies suggested that groundwater recharge from the river floodplain may contribute to maintaining good-quality water in the groundwater system. The modeling study examines groundwater salinity change over a 5-year period under different managed groundwater recharge and discharge scenarios. The modeling results show that adopting water saving technologies and increased groundwater recharge through the river floodplain allows maintaining low groundwater salinity. The studies found that developing groundwater for irrigation increases salinity in the aquifer due to downward saline water fluxes. The results indicate that managed aquifer recharge and discharge contribute to maintaining salinity levels in the vadoze zone and groundwater.
River basins / Models / Drinking water / Irrigation water / Water conservation / Conjunctive use / Surface water / Groundwater / Salinity / Recharge / Aquifers Record No:H043327
Sharing water equitably in the Ferghana Valley, Central Asia Author(s): International Water Management Institute (IWMI). Published year: 2010. Publisher(s): Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI) Pages: 2 Series: IWMI Success Stories 001
Focus group discussions and a modeling approach were applied to determine policy and regulatory refinements for current water allocation practices in Kyrgyzstan. Lessons from the Lower Colorado River basin, Texas and New South Wales, Australia were taken into consideration. The paper analyzes the impact of adopting some of these interventions within the socio-environmental context that currently prevails in Kyrgyzstan. The optimization model for water distribution at the river-basin scale was developed using GAMS 2.25 software. Application of the model to the Akbura River basin indicated efficiencies in the proposed institutional rules especially in low water years.
Case studies / Reservoirs / Irrigation requirements / River basins / Models / Water allocation Record No:H043191
Irrigated agriculture in Central Asia can only be developed through increase of crop yields and reduction of water volumes applied per unit of agricultural production. Thus to improve agricultural production, proper agronomic measures and irrigation schedules have to be developed considering local conditions. To assess existing water productivity, 9 farms have been selected along South Fergana Canal. A Soil-Water-Air-Plant (SWAP) model has been applied for the same fields to predict potential water productivity.
Cotton / Irrigation scheduling / Simulation models / Analysis / Water productivity / Irrigated farming Record No:H043490
Planning / Institution building / Organizations / Water management Record No:H043488
Water and geopolitics in Central Asia Author(s): Abdullayev, I.; Manthrithilake, Herath; Kazbekov, Jusipbek Published year: 2010. Pages: pp.125-143 Series: Routledge ISS Studies in Rural Livelihoods
This paper examines the recent emerging informal Water Users Groups (WUGs) on the Ferghana Valley for managing of the water at the former collective farm level and potential for strengthening of the weak Water Users Associations (WUAs) through replication of WUGs formation. Due to the collapse of the Soviet Union, Central Asian states have introduced reforms in different sectors including the water resources sectors. As a part of the water resources management reforms, Water Users Associations (WUAs) formation has implemented to manage water resources infrastructure and water distribution. WUGs have been emerging because WUAs have not been very efficient and effective due to their top-down implementation approach. In future, WUGs are very effective institutional mechanism of water resources management, and a useful support instrument to WUAs.
Legal aspects / Irrigation water / Water distribution / Water allocation / Water resource management / Collective farms / Collective action / Water users / Water user associations Record No:H042270
Water, food and livelihoods in river basins Author(s): Cook, Simon E.; Fisher, M. J.; Andersson, M. S.; Rubiano, J.; Giordano, Mark Published year: 2009. Journal: Water International Pages: 34(1):13-29
Conflicting demands for food and water, exacerbated by increasing population, increase the risks of food insecurity, poverty and environmental damage in major river systems. Agriculture remains the predominant water user, but the linkage between water, agriculture and livelihoods is more complex than “water scarcity increases poverty”. The response of both agricultural and non-agricultural systems to increased pressure will affect livelihoods. Development will be constrained in closed basins if increased demand for irrigation deprives other users or if existing agricultural use constrains non-agricultural activities and in open basins if agriculture cannot feed an expanding or changing population or if the river system loses capacity due to degradation or over-exploitation.
Land degradation / Food security / Food shortages / Food production / Water productivity / Irrigated farming / Water scarcity / Water stress / River basins / Water use / Poverty Record No:H042309
During the last decade, the competition for water between the hydropower-oriented upstream and irrigated agriculture-centred downstream in the Syrdarya River basin, Central Asia, has significantly increased. Since 1993, 2–3 km3 of winter flows from hydropower generation in the upstream have flowed annually into the saline depression of Arnasai located in the midstream. This results in much less water being available for irrigation during summer. Groundwater development modelling conducted for one of the Fergana Valley’s aquifers suggests that temporary storage of winter flows in the aquifer – “water banking” – could be an effective adaptive strategy to optimize water management in the basin. The study concludes that a shift from canal to groundwater irrigation, combined with winter-flow banking can effectively reduce the upstream–downstream pressures and ensure improved water supply for downstream water uses during summer time.
Water budget / Hydrology / River basin management / Canals / Conjunctive use / Groundwater recharge / Simulation models / Aquifers / Groundwater irrigation Record No:H042314
Case studies / Maps / Water scarcity / Wastewater irrigation / Productivity / Irrigated farming / Groundwater management / Domestic water / Drinking water / Land management / Tanks / Water storage / Water harvesting / Farmers / Poverty / Soil conservation / Food security / Multiple use / Water use / Water resource management / Development projects / Research projects / Research institutes Record No:H042257
Capacity building / Project design / Monitoring / Living standards / Indicators / Impact assessment / Water management / Water resources Record No:H046467
Expansion of irrigated agriculture in the Aral Sea Basin in the second half of the twentieth century led to the conversion of vast tracks of virgin land into productive agricultural systems resulting in significant increases in employment opportunities and income generation. The positive effects of the development of irrigated agriculture were replete with serious environmental implications. Excessive use of irrigation water coupled with inadequate drainage systems has caused largescale land degradation and water quality deterioration in downstream parts of the basin, which is fed by two main rivers, the Amu-Darya and Syr-Darya. Recent estimates suggest that more than 50% of irrigated soils are salt-affected and/or waterlogged in Central Asia. Considering the availability of natural and human resources in the Aral Sea Basin as well as the recent research addressing soil and water management, there is cause for cautious optimism. Research-based interventions that have shown significant promise in addressing this impasse include: (1) rehabilitation of abandoned salt-affected lands through halophytic plant species; (2) introduction of 35-day-old early maturing rice varieties to withstand ambient soil and irrigation water salinity; (3) productivity enhancement of high-magnesium soils and water resources through calcium-based soil amendments; (4) use of certain tree species as biological pumps to lower elevated groundwater levels in waterlogged areas; (5) optimal use of fertilizers, particularly those supplying nitrogen, to mitigate the adverse effects of soil and irrigation water salinity; (6) mulching of furrows under saline conditions to reduce evaporation and salinity buildup in the root zone; and (7) establishment of multipurpose tree and shrub species for biomass and renewable energy production. Because of water withdrawals for agriculture from two main transboundary rivers in the Aral Sea Basin, there would be a need for policy level interventions conducive for enhancing interstate cooperation to transform salt-affected soil and saline water resources from an environmental and productivity constraint into an economic asset.
Rice / Farming systems / Land degradation / Pumps / Evapotranspiration / Trees / Subsurface drainage / Irrigation water / Saline water / Water quality / Waterlogging / Fertilizer application / Soil reclamation / Soil improvement / Soil degradation / Soil salinity / Groundwater / River basins / Water resources Record No:H042212
Sanitation / Wastewater / Sewage / Effluents / Water pollution / Surface irrigation / Water security / Water scarcity / River basins / Territorial waters / International waters / Water resource management Record No:H042199
Sanitation / Wastewater / Sewage / Effluents / Water pollution / Surface irrigation / Water security / Water scarcity / River basins / Territorial waters / International waters / Water resource management Record No:H042181
The Ferghana Valley Project, initiated in 2001, has promoted institutional change in the post-Soviet irrigation sector in this part of Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. This paper presents the short-term (5-year) impacts of integrated water resources management project activities focused on water user participation in the South Ferghana Canal of Ferghana Province in Uzbekistan on irrigation water delivery and crop productivity. Irrigation performance assessment indicators indicate only slight improvements in water delivery and crop yields. Although water was important, larger changes in the agricultural sector of Uzbekistan dominated outcomes in this relatively short time span.
Crop yield / Governance / Irrigation water / Water delivery / Canals / Water user associations / Participatory management / Water resource management Record No:H042130
The primary objective of an irrigation organization is to provide efficient and effective management of water resources to achieve enhanced agricultural production. Performance assessment studies provide a tool to evaluate and promote this objective. The study examines the existing planning procedures and assesses irrigation performance of four Water User Associations (WUAs) located in Osh Province, Kyrgyzstan. Performance was evaluated using indicators of adequacy, efficiency, ependability and equity. Indicators were calculated for each irrigation season over the period 2003 to 2007. In general, all WUAs were found to be strong in terms of adequacy and efficiency standards. However, performance with respect to dependability and equity was poor. The results suggest that more effort is needed to improve temporal uniformity and equity in water distribution. In order to achieve this, estimations of irrigation requirements by WUAmanagers needs to be improved and mechanisms eveloped to request water in quantities, which are needed to maintain equity across theWUAoutlets and among water users. The study concludes that the establishment of WUAs in Kyrgyzstan has helped to address the problem of water distribution and allocation among a large number of farmers. However, further training of farmers and managers is required to build their capacity to share water and ensure equity among users particularly during periods of less than optimal water supply. The findings of this research suggest that application of a pre-determined set of indicators can be a useful and cost effective tool to measure the performance of WUAs. This is particularly important for Central Asia where the performance of the recently established and state initiated WUAs to replace former collective farms is now a key element in future sustainable water management. The study identified uncertainties in the estimation of WUA water demands based on previousmethods and suggestsmore attention and care required in calculating water requirements.
Performance indexes / Irrigation management / Planning / Irrigation requirements / Water allocation / Equity / Water distribution / Performance evaluation / Water user associations Record No:H042127
The dynamics of artificial recharge of winter surface flows coupled with increased summer groundwater use for irrigation in the Sokh aquifer (Central Asia) have been investigated. Water release patterns from the giant Toktogul reservoir have changed, as priority is now given to hydropower generation in winter in Kyrgyzstan. Winter flows have increased and summer releases have declined, but the Syr Darya River cannot pass these larger winter flows and the excess is diverted to a natural depression, creating a 40 × 109m3 lake. A water balance study of all 18 aquifers feeding the Fergana Valley indicated the feasibility of winter groundwater recharge in storage created by summer abstraction. This modeling study examines the dynamics of the process in one aquifer over a 5-year period, with four scenarios: the current situation; increased groundwater abstraction of around 625 million (M) m3/year; groundwater abstraction with an artificial recharge of 144 Mm3/year, equivalent to the volume available in low flow years in the Sokh River; and with a larger artificial recharge of 268 Mm3/year, corresponding to high flow availability. Summer surface irrigation diversions can be reduced by up to 350 Mm3 and water table levels can be lowered.
Climate change has exacerbated concerns about water security. The authors stress the need for countries in basins where populations are growing to anticipate the water shortage implications for food production. The paper analyses the future status of the interdependence among riparian states in four semi-arid transnational basins under the climate change SRES A2 scenario and projected population growth with a focus on the potential for rainfed agriculture on current croplands and the requirements for irrigation water. Increasing water interdependence among basin states requires institutional preparedness and water sharing arrangements.We conclude that the inclusion of long-term trends in the design of water sharing agreements will improve their robustness to cope with change and mitigate the potential risk of conflict.
Water use / Water requirements / Water shortage / Water scarcity / Climate change / Agreements / Water security / International waters / Watercourses / River basin management Record No:H042661
After the independence of Central Asian countries, many international projects have been launched to promote water users’ inclusion into the water management at different levels. The aim of such projects is to achieve sustainable water management through inclusion of interests of different groups on day-to-day water management. Although IWRM in Central Asia has been already promoted for a decade, there are only a few examples of the implementation in real life situations. The Integrated Water Resources Management in Ferghana Valley (IWRM FV) is a pilot project on implementing integrated water resources management elements at the main canal levels and below. The experience gained from IWRM FV project and lessons learnt could be useful for the national and international organizations for their future work on IWRM implementation at the different regions of Central Asia. IWRM FV project has been active since 2001 in the Ferghana Valley, one of the largest irrigated areas of Central Asia. The project has promoted and implemented participatory irrigation management for three pilot canals. This paper presents the process of implementation and some preliminary outcomes of the IWRM VF project.
Surveys / Irrigation programs / Irrigation canals / Irrigation management / Water user associations / Participatory management / Governance / History / Water resource management Record No:H041661
Uzbekistan, being historically one of the most populated and agriculture-based republics in the former Soviet Union, still features quite high annual population growth rates and great dependence on agriculture as a backbone for the rest of the economic reforms.With water playing an extremely important role in producing a sufficient food base for the country’s growing population and earning much needed foreign exchange for the government to ensure overall economic development, the pressures on this scarce resource will obviously and inevitably grow, putting it much at risk over a long-term perspective. So would available water be enough to meet ever-increasing demands from major economic uses in the foreseeable future, and what can be the options for meeting such demands – these are the key questions raised and researched in this article. As such the research concentrates on the two major country-specific scenarios with water and its multiple uses for Uzbekistan – the business as usual and the best case. Both scenarios discuss possible future implications for the next quarter-century given certain assumptions. Finally when summarizing the findings, the paper provides conclusions and recommendations as to how the model and further scenarios can be better optimized given the trans-boundary nature of most water resources in Central Asia where Uzbekistan geographically belongs.
Domestic water / Crop production / Irrigated farming / Water use efficiency / Water demand / Water supply / Water balance / Models / Water use / Food consumption / Food supply Record No:H041657
The overarching goal of this research was to map crop water productivity using satellite sensor data at various spectral, spatial, radiometric, and temporal resolutions involving: (a) Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) 500m, (b) MODIS 250m, (c) Landsat enhanced thematic mapper plus (ETM+) 60m thermal, (d) Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) 23.5 m, and (e) Quickbird 2.44 m data. The spectro-biophysical models were developed using IRS and Quickbird satellite data for wet biomass, dry biomass, leaf area index, and grain yield for 5 crops: (a) cotton, (b) maize, (c) winter wheat, (d) rice, and (e) alfalfa in the Sry Darya basin, Central Asia. Crop-specific productivity maps were developed by applying the best spectro-biophysical models for the respective delineated crop types. Water use maps were produced using simplified surface energy balance (SSEB) model by multiplying evaporative fraction derived from Landsat ETM+ thermal data by potential ET. The water productivity (WP) maps were then derived by dividing the crop productivity maps by water use maps. The results of cotton crop, an overwhelmingly predominant crop in Central Asian Study area, showed that about 55% area had low WP of lt; 0.3 kg/m3, 34% had moderate WP of 0.3-0.4 kg/m3, and only 11% area had high WP gt; 0.4 kg/m3. The trends were similar for other crops. These results indicated that there is highly significant scope to increase WP (to grow quot;more crop per dropquot;) through better water and cropland management practices in the low WP areas, which will substantially enhance food security of the ballooning populations without having to increase: (a) cropland areas, andor (b) irrigation water allocations.
Models / Remote sensing / Mapping / Evapotranspiration / Water use / Crops / Water productivity Record No:H042408
The focus in Uzbekistan on cotton and its irrigation led to large increases in water use with significant downstream impacts, particularly on the Aral Sea. While agriculture is still heavily influenced by the state, Uzbekistan has become more integrated in the global economy since its independence. The major goal of this paper is to examine the interrelationship between agricultural policies and water use during the last 15 years and how moves towards freer markets, such as those which might occur under the World Trade Organization, may impact Uzbekistan’s water resources in the future. The results show that partial or full market liberalization may result in an increase in water use. However, the greater message is that non-water policies can have a major impact on water outcomes and therefore should be considered in any discussions of water sector reform.
Marketing / Trade liberalization / Food security / Land tenure / Farmers / Farm structure / Agricultural policy / Rice / Wheat / Cotton / Water management / Irrigation management / Water use Record No:H041745
Legal aspects / Empowerment / Capacity building / Institution building / Water user associations Record No:H042571
Integrated water resources management: putting good theory into real practice - Central Asian experience Author(s): Dukhovny, V.; Sokolov, V.; Manthrithilake, Herath; Kazbekov, Jusipbek; Anarbekov, Oyture; Mirzaev, N.; Pinkhasov, M.; Alimjanov, A.; Mukhamedjanov, Sh; Nerozin, S.; Galustyan, A.; Khorst, M.; Stulina, G.; Ziganshina, D.; Masumov, R.; Kadyrov, A.; Umarov, P.; Begimov, I.; Khegay, V.; Tuchin, A.; Zherelyeva, S.; Roshenko, E. Published year: 2009. Publisher(s): Tashkent, Uzbekistan: Scientific and Information Center of the Interstate Commission for Water Coordination (SIC ICWC); Tashkent, Uzbekistan: GWP Caucasus and Central Asia (GWP CACENA) Pages: 381
Climate change / Capacity building / Economic aspects / Water policy / Legislation / Valley / Crop yields / Social mobility / Extension activities / Farmers / Drainage / Water user associations / Irrigation systems / International waters / Indicators / Land productivity / Water saving / Water productivity / Water governance / Information systems / Water distribution systems / Water allocation / Water demand / Water conservation / Monitoring / Water use / Water users / Hydrology / Water management / Water resources Record No:H045575
Integrated water resource management (IWRM) is a widely recognized management framework that is currently being adopted throughout post-Soviet Central Asia to inform and guide national water sector reforms, and to keep up with the pace of the faster moving land reforms taking place in the region. With hydrographic principles and public participation being at the core of this framework, the process in the region has started with the reform of on-farm irrigation systems by creating water users associations (WUAs), transferring irrigation management to them and introducing irrigation service fees. This paper draws on the experiences, over four years, of three study WUAs set up in the Ferghana Valley in Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and the Kyrgyz Republic. Aiming to explore the differences in institutional environment and arrangements in these three countries for establishing WUAs, as well as assessing WUA performances (particularly from users’ perspectives), the study reveals that it is not only the newly-established institutional arrangements in the irrigation sector but also their internal operations, coupled with other important factors such as size of area farmed, overall viability of agriculture and a wider economic context that crucially determine overall irrigation performance.
Water users / Farmers / Maintenance / Canals / Legal aspects / User charges / Water rates / Water delivery / Irrigation management / Water user associations Record No:H040659
Capacity building / Training / Performance indexes / Equity / Water distribution / Water delivery / Water allocation / Legal aspects / Social participation / Water user associations / Irrigated farming / Irrigation management / Governance / Rivers / Irrigation canals Record No:H041914
Expenditure / Canals / Construction / Capacity building / Water user associations / Development projects / Water rates / User charges / Water distribution / Water allocation / Water measurement / Flumes / River basins Record No:H041911
Recent evidences from some irrigated areas worldwide, such as Central Asia, suggest that water used for irrigation contains magnesium (Mg2þ) at levels higher than calcium (Ca2þ). Excess levels of Mg2þ in irrigation water and/or in soil, in combination with sodium (Naþ) or alone, result in soil degradation because of Mg2þ effects on the soil’s physical properties. More than 30 per cent of irrigated lands in Southern Kazakhstan having excess levels of Mg2þ are characterized by low infiltration rates and hydraulic conductivities. The consequence has been a gradual decline in the yield of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.), which is commonly grown in the region. These soils require adequate quantities of Ca2þ to mitigate the effects of excess Mg2þ. As a source of Ca2þ, phosphogypsum—a byproduct of the phosphorous fertilizer industry—is available in some parts of Central Asia. In participation with the local farming community, we carried out a 4-year field experiment in Southern Kazakhstan to evaluate the effects of soil application of phosphogypsum—0, 4_5, and 8_0 metric ton per hectare (t ha_1)—on chemical changes in a soil containing excess levels of Mg2þ, and on cotton yield and economics. The canal water had Mg2þ to Ca2þ ratio ranging from 1_30 to 1_66 during irrigation period. The application of phosphogypsum increased Ca2þ concentration in the soil and triggered the replacement of excess Mg2þ from the cation exchange complex. After harvesting the first crop, there was 18 per cent decrease in exchangeable magnesium percentage (EMP) of the surface 0_2m soil over the pre- experiment EMP level in the plots where phosphogypsum was applied at 4_5 t ha_1, and a 31 per cent decrease in EMP in plots treated with phosphogypsum at 8 t ha_1. Additional beneficial effect of the amendment was an increase in the soil phosphorus content. The 4-year average cotton yields were 2_6 t ha_1 with 8 t ha_1 phosphogypsum, 2_4 t ha_1 with 4_5 t ha_1 phosphogypsum, and 1_4 t ha_1 with the control. Since the amendment was applied once at the beginning, exchangeable Mg2þ levels tended to increase 4 years after its application, particularly in the treatment with 4_5 tha_1 phosphogypsum. Thus, there would be a need for phosphogypsum application to such soils after every 4–5 years to optimize the ionic balance and sustain higher levels of cotton production. The economic benefits from the phosphogypsum treatments were almost twice those from the control.
The goal of this paper was to develop methods and protocols for water productivity mapping (WPM) using remote sensing data at multiple resolutions and scales in conjunction with field-plot data. The methods and protocols involved three broad categories: (a) Crop Productivity Mapping (CPM) (kg/m2); (b) Water Use (evapotranspiration) Mapping (WUM)(m3/m2); and (c) Water Productivity Mapping (WPM) (kg/m3). First, the CPMs were determined using remote sensing by: (i) Mapping crop types; (ii) modeling crop yield; and (iii) extrapolating models to larger areas. Second, WUM were derived using the Simplified Surface Energy Balance (SSEB) model. Finally, WPMs were produced by dividing CPMs and WUMs. The paper used data from Quickbird 2.44m, Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) Resoursesat-1 23.5m, Landsat-7 30m, and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) 250m and 500m, to demonstrate the methods for mapping water productivity (WP). In terms of physical water productivity (kilogram of yield produced per unit of water delivered), wheat crop had highest water productivity of 0.60 kg/m3 (WP), followed by rice with 0.5 kg/m3, and cotton with 0.42 kg/m3. In terms of economic value (dollar per unit of water delivered), cotton ranked highest at $ 0.5/m3 followed by wheat with $ 0.33/m3 and rice at $ 0.10/m3. The study successfully delineated the areas of low and high WP. An overwhelming proportion (50+%) of the irrigated areas were under low WP for all crops with nly about 10% area in high WP.
Irrigated farming / Cotton / Rice / Wheat / Evapotranspiration / Vegetation index / Remote sensing / Mapping / Water productivity Record No:H041669
The overarching goal of this paper was to espouse methods and protocols for water productivity mapping (WPM) using high spatial resolution Landsat remote sensing data. In a world where land and water for agriculture are becoming increasingly scarce, growing “more crop per drop” (increasing water productivity) becomes crucial for food security of future generations. The study used time-series Landsat ETM+ data to produce WPMs of irrigated crops, with emphasis on cotton in the Galaba study area in the Syrdarya river basin of Central Asia. The WPM methods and protocols using remote sensing data consisted of: (1) crop productivity (ton/ha) maps (CPMs) involving crop type classification, crop yield and biophysical modeling, and extrapolating yield models to larger areas using remotely sensed data; (2) crop water use (m3/ha) maps (WUMs) (or actual seasonal evapotranspiration or actual ET) developed through Simplified Surface Energy Balance (SSEB) model; and (3) water productivity (kg/m3) maps (WPMs) produced by dividing raster layers of CPMs by WUMs. The SSEB model calculated WUMs (actual ET) by multiplying the ET fraction by reference ET. The ET fraction was determined using Landsat thermal imagery by selecting the “hot” pixels (zero ET) and “cold” pixels (maximum ET). The grass reference ET was calculated by FAO Penman-Monteith method using meteorological data. The WPMs for the Galaba study area demonstrated a wide variations (0-0.54 kg/m3) in water productivity of cotton fields with overwhelming proportion (87%) of the area having WP less than 0.30 kg/m3, 11% of the area having WP in range of 0.30-0.36 kg/m3, and only 2% of the area with WP greater than 0.36 kg/m3. These results clearly imply that there are opportunities for significant WP increases in overwhelming proportion of the existing croplands. The areas of low WP are spatially pin-pointed and can be used as focus for WP improvements through better land and water management practices.
River basins / Irrigated farming / Evapotranspiration / Models / Crop yield / Productivity / Crops / Water use / Remote sensing / Mapping / Water productivity Record No:H041566
Ecosystem benefits of ‘bright’ spots Author(s): Bossio, Deborah; Noble, Andrew D.; Aloysius, Noel; Pretty, J.; Penning de Vries, F. Published year: 2008. Pages: pp.205-224 Series: Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture Series 6
Case studies / Social aspects / Irrigated farming / Shifting cultivation / Farming systems / Rice / Pesticides / Water productivity / Ecosystems / Public health / Poverty / Crop production Record No:H041603
Poverty / Food security / Environmental effects / Water allocation / History / Case studies / Planning / Water transfer / Water scarcity / River basins Record No:H041812
Irrigation canals / Irrigation systems / Water user associations / Institutional development / Economic aspects / Water policy / Privatization / Irrigation management Record No:H040192
Continuous institutional changes in the rural sector in Central Asia have negatively affected the reforms and the development of other related sectors, e.g. the irrigation sector. Therefore, reforms in the irrigation sector have been carried out in an ever changing and uncertain environment. Institutional changes have so far been aimed the farm level that was formerly managed by collective and state farms. Replacement of relatively few collective farms by thousands of individual farming units has resulted in chaos and anarchy in water management at on farm level. Water Users Associations (WUAs) were introduced in Kyrgyzstan to better organize farm level water management. The key questions concerning WUAs in Kyrgyzstan at present are: Do they provide better service for farmers in delivering water? Do irrigation services result in good crop yields? Are they financially viable? In order to answer these questions, the irrigation performance of four WUAs located within one main canal area in Osh province of Kyrgyzstan were assessed for the period 2003-2005. The analysis indicates that in spite of intense international support, WUAs in the study area were performing relatively poorly on irrigation service provision. However, there are signs of improvement, such as increasing water productivity, reduced water use and improved financial sustainability. The Kyrgyz experience on transformation of on-farm level water management from collective farms to WUAs can provide good examples for neighboring countries, e.g. Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, where agricultural restructuring has only started recently.
User charges / Water rates / Equity / Water delivery / Water distribution / Water user associations / Irrigation canals / Water management Record No:H040650
Water distribution / Performance indexes / Water delivery / Water resource management / Water user associations / Farmers / Participatory management / Governance / Irrigation canals Record No:H040647
Water conservation is essential to prevent salinity and land degradation in Central Asia. Therefore, field-testing and evaluation of water conservation methods, i.e. laser land leveling in new farming systems of Central Asia is important task. This in mind the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and its regional partner on IWRM FV (IWRM FV project – Integrated Water Resources Management in Ferghana Valley project is funded by Swiss Development Cooperation (SDC) and conducted jointly with IWMI and Scientific Information Center of Interstate Coordination Water Commission (SIC ICWC) in the Ferghana Valley of Central Asia) project SIC ICWC have conducted 3 year study of impacts of the Laser leveled land leveling on water use, productivity and crop yields in northern Tajikistan. The major research question was laser land leveling an effective water saving tool in the new context of land use and ownership on smaller private plots. Can farmers afford the costs of laser land leveling and how economically viable is it? These research questions were studied in 5 ha laser leveled and neighboring non-leveled (control) fields for 2004–2006. The results showed that laser land leveling can reduce the water application rate in 2004 by 593 M3/ha, in 2005 by 1509 M3/ha and in 2006 by 333 M3/ha in comparison with the unleveled field, located in the similar agro-ecological conditions. The deep percolation was 8% lower and run off 24% less than in non-leveled field. The average annual net income from the laser field was 22% higher than that from the control field. The gross margin from the laser-leveled field were 16. 88 and 171% higher compared to that from the control field for 2004, 2005 and 2006, and on average was 92% higher. In spite of these positive results, there are hindrances on wide application of laser land leveling in Tajikistan. These are absence of initial capital of farmers and scattered land location.
Economic analysis / Water balance / Evapotranspiration / Cotton / Soil properties / Land management / Water conservation Record No:H040585
The degradation of groundwater quality and quantity in Uzbekistan is a major problem for people in charge of drinking water supply. In order to guaranty a safe and effective access to the resource, it is necessary to estimate the quality of the resource and to evaluate the recharge rate and the residence time of water within the aquifer systems. This study presents a few attempts carried out to draw a first portrait of the real situation in Central Asia.
Indicators / Drinking water / Water quality / Hydrology / Groundwater / Water resources Record No:H040662
Enhancing the productivity of high-magnesium soil and water resources Author(s): Vyshpolsky, F.; Bekbaev, U.; Mukhamedjanov, K.; Ibatullin, S.; Paroda, R.; Yuldashev, T.; Karimov, Akmal; Aw-Hassan, A.; Noble, Andrew; Qadir, Manzoor Published year: 2007. Journal: IWMI leading BS Project output Pages: 4
Irrigation management / Farmers / Exhibitions / Conferences / Institutional development / Water user associations / Productivity / Canals / Social participation / Water use efficiency Record No:H040653
Agreements / Conflict / Water allocation / Water user associations / Water users / Water distribution / Maintenance / Canals / Cotton / Irrigated farming Record No:H040654
Yields / Wheat / Cotton / Irrigated farming / Water distribution / Water allocation / Canals / Irrigation management / Water user associations / Organizational change / Institutional development Record No:H040699
Institutional development / Hydrology / River basin management Record No:H039751
The IWRM-Fergana Project: Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan Author(s): Manthrithilake, Herath; Tashmatov, Alisher Published year: 2006. Publisher(s): Tashkent, Uzbekistan: IWMI. Sub Regional Office, Central Asia Pages: 1.8 Series: IWRM-Fergana Project technical brief no.001
This report addresses a specific context of massive inequity and unevenness in water allocation and distribution experienced presently by the water users in transitional Central Asian economies, as a result of broad-scale fragmentation of the previously large farms. The report describes action research aimed at making water distribution at the tertiary level more reliable, transparent and equitable.
Water user associations / Performance evaluation / Irrigation canals / Watercourses / Water allocation / Irrigation scheduling / Water distribution Record No:H039215
Following the dissolution of the former Soviet Union and the collapse of existing trade arrangements, the newly independent states of Central Asia were left with the task of developing their own independent market economies. The region has undergone tremendous economic and social changes including significant agricultural reform mainly targeted at privatizing large collective farms that were established during the Soviet era. These reforms include the establishment of smaller private and cooperative farms in order to improve the efficiency and equity of existing production systems. Within Uzbekistan, this move to privatize farms has, in the majority of cases, led to declining productivity and net incomes. However, there have been instances where privatized farms and smaller collectives have been able to capitalize on these changes and perform at levels exceeding the norm. This Report identifies the key attributes of these successful farms that have been termed apos;apos;brightapos;apos; spots.
Investment / Crop yield / Soil fertility / Drainage / Water quality / Irrigated farming Record No:H036941
The framework reported here drives from the documentation and experiences gained under the SDC funded “Integrated Water Resources Management in the Fergana Valley Project (IWRM-Fergana), which is implemented by the association comprising the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and the Scientific Information Center of the Interstate Commission on Water Coordination (SIC-ICWC) of Central Asia.
Water user associations / Water delivery / Social participation / Water resource management Record No:H036247
Case studies / Drought / Water user associations / Water policy / Water quality / Water distribution / Water allocation / Environmental degradation / Water rights / Privatization / Irrigation management Record No:H036251
Income / Households / Conflict / Labor / Maintenance / Watercourses / Irrigation canals / Water delivery / Water user associations / Irrigation management / Water management Record No:H036246
Conflict / Irrigation management / Political aspects / Large-scale systems / Irrigation systems / Environmental effects / History / Water policy / Water resource management Record No:H035769
This report analyzes the evolving water-management institutions and their performance of five core water management functions, in the context of the ongoing economic and agrarian reform in the Kyrgyz Republic. These core water-management functions are, operation of water systems, maintenance, resource mobilization, conflict resolution and organizational management. The report also identifies key issues and challenges that constrain effective stakeholder participation in water-resources management.
Rivers / Conflict / Maintenance / Operations / Irrigation programs / Agrarian reform / Research methods / Water user associations / Participatory management / Irrigation management / Analysis / Water resource management Record No:H035614
Irrigation canals / Water delivery / Farmers attitudes / User charges / Irrigation management / Watercourses / Cropping systems / Livestock / Crop production / Farm income / Water resource management / Surveys / Water user associations Record No:H035506
Application of water productivity analysis can provide clues in the search for solutions to solve water management problems of central Asia. It is in this context that this paper provides an analysis of water productivity both spatially and temporally in the cotton and rice production areas of Syr Darya Basin of central Asia. The spatial analysis includes different farm types and basin segments, and the temporal analysis includes 3 hydrological years during 1999–2001. The analysis of temporal data showed that in water-deficient years, water productivity, both in terms of supply and evapotranspiration, is higher than the same in water-abundant years. The data also show that type and size of farms have an impact on water productivity in the case of both cotton and rice. This study concludes by suggesting strategies and options for enhancing the average water productivity both in the cotton- and rice-growing areas of the Syr Darya Basin.
Irrigated farming / Rice / Cotton / Farm size / Analysis / Productivity / Evapotranspiration / Water resource management / River basins Record No:H035089
The limited water resources of arid zones are a main constraint on economical development. This is especially true for the Aral Sea disaster zone. Some 1.2 million people are living in the Bukhara oasis, the oldest irrigated zone of Uzbekistan. Irrigation practice in the more than 230,000 ha of land consumes more than 5 km3 of Amu Darya river water. The future development of irrigated agriculture and the environmental situation in the Aral Sea Basin requires analysis of current water management in the irrigated areas of Uzbekistan. Until the 1960s, Bukhara Oasis received water for irrigation from the Zarafshan River, which originates in Tajikistan, flows through Tajikistan, three provinces of Uzbekistan. The Zarafshan River supplied water around 1.2 to 1.5 million hectares of irrigated areas of upper located three provinces of Uzbekistan and for industrial and communal needs of second biggest city of Uzbekistan-Samarqand. Increasing irrigated areas in upper and middle reach of Zarafshan River has impacted the water supply to Bukhara oasis. In the beginning of 1960s, water shortage in the irrigated agriculture of Bukhara Oasis reached its apogee, composing 50 to 55 percent from annual water requirement. As a solution to the water shortage problem of Bukhara oasis, a canal was built from Amu Darya – the largest water body of Central Asia. In the beginning of the 1970s, canal Amu-Bukhara was finished and Bukhara Oasis began to receive water from more reliable source. Further development of the irrigated agriculture in Bukhara Oasis from 1970s fully depended on water supply from Amu-Bukhara canal. The irrigated agriculture of the oasis began to receive more water supply per unit of land, and some new areas have been developed. In the end of the 1980s, Bukhara Oasis faced serious water-environmental problems such as land salinity and water-logging. The land and water productivity declined as an affect of above-mentioned negative impacts of irrigated agriculture. The solutions to the water-environmental problems of the Bukhara Oasis can be only developed through detailed analysis of the past of irrigated agriculture and water management system.This research paper describes stages of development of irrigated agriculture and water management system of Bukhara oasis, tries to analyze general trends, water use, and management changes in the different stages.
Irrigated farming / River basins / Arid zones / Economic development / Water management Record No:H033589
Performance indexes / Irrigation systems / Evapotranspiration / Water shortage / Water management / Satellite surveys / Remote sensing Record No:H033951
Handbook on implementing a time-based water distribution Author(s): Abdullaev, Iskandar; Ul Hassan, Mehmood; Yakubov, Murat Published year: 2004. Publisher(s): Tashkent, Uzbekistan: International Water Management Institute (IWMI) Pages: 15
Privatization / Water user associations / Irrigation management / Participatory management / Water resource management Record No:H031589
Water productivity in the Syr-Darya River Basin Author(s): Murray-Rust, H.; Abdullaev, I.; ul Hassan, M.; Horinkova, V. Published year: 2003. Publisher(s): Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI) Pages: v, 75 Series: IWMI Research Report 067
This report analyses water productivity and water-saving initiatives in the Syr-Darya river basin in Central Asia and presents institutional and political aspects of water management in the basin.
Water conservation / River basins / Crop yield / Water delivery / Water distribution / Irrigation requirements / Water demand / Irrigation canals / Irrigated farming / Water allocation / Institutional development / Irrigation effects / Productivity / Water resource management Record No:H032398
Economic analysis / Sensitivity analysis / Reservoir operation / Policy / Case studies / Environmental effects / Crop production / Soil moisture / Soil salinity / Irrigation effects / Optimization / Models / River basins / Water resource management Record No:H030944
How to establish a water users association?: practical steps for social mobilizers Author(s): International Water Management Institute (IWMI); Scientific Information Center, Interstate Commission for Water Coordination (SIC ICWC). Published year: 2003. Publisher(s): Tashkent, Uzbekistan: International Water Management Institute (IWMI); Tashkent, Uzbekistan: Scientific Information Center, Interstate Commission for Water Coordination (SIC ICWC) Pages: 27
Water user associations / Irrigation canals / Irrigation programs / Water management Record No:H033093
Response to land degradation Author(s): Bridges, E. M.; Hannam, I. D.; Oldeman, L. R.; Penning de Vries, F. W. T.; Scherr, S. J.; Sombatpanit, S. Published year: 2001. Publisher(s): New Delhi, India: Oxford amp; IBH Publishing Pages: xxii, 507
This paper on Water for Rural Development is divided into two parts. The first part outlines the most important issues from IWMIapos;s point of view on water for rural development, with a focus on developing countries. This part identifies, discusses and provides recommendations for key areas for interventions in water resources development and management in the context of rural development. The second part of the document provides analyses of present and future water resources in the World Bankapos;s defined regions.
Population growth / Crop production / Food security / Food production / Water scarcity / Cereals / Crop yield / Water allocation / Water demand / Water supply / Food consumption / Institutions / Water policy / Health / Environment / Groundwater / Land management / Small scale systems / Water resources development / Rural development / Irrigation management / Water management Record No:H029260
Author(s): Abdullaev, I.; Matyakubov, B. Published year: 2001. Publisher(s): Tashkent, Uzbekistan: State Committee on Science and Technology Pages: 123
This publication reports on a study of the increase in river salinity and the implemented control programs in five major irrigated basins in the arid zone. The study is limited to salinity.
Salinity control / Legislation / Pollution control / Water use / Water allocation / Drainage / Irrigation effects / Water quality / Arid lands / River basin development / Irrigation management / Water resources development Record No:H026535
Sustainability / Land reform / associations / Farmersapos / Social aspects / Tube well irrigation / Canal irrigation / Water distribution / Water user associations / Privatization / Local management / Dams / Irrigation management Record No:H015359
Covid-19 has caused a rupture in migration logistics and exposed inequities in the migration system, yet drivers of movement remain. Government lockdowns and closed borders due to the pandemic curtailed movement for migrants, posing complex problems for migrant hosting and origin countries. There have been significant economic shocks, with a sharp decline in unemployment for migrants and an inability to send money home through remittances to support family. Some migrants face social stigma for returning home without an income, particularly if families relied on loans to support their journeys. Consequences have been severe for informal migrants who lack government protection in their host countries. Migrants, particularly those living in crowded, lower-income neighborhoods, have been experiencing stigmatization related to the spread of Covid-19. We look at the impacts of Covid-19 on migration governance and rural areas across seven countries,development planning in Ghana, migration challenges in Southeast Asia, and community-based disaster management and resilience building in South Africa.
This focus area contributes to the following One CGIAR impact areas:
Enhancing capacity for system transformation
Food, land and water systems are complex networks of actors, institutions and activities related to the production, value addition and consumption of food. These systems are connected to and influenced by the structures and supporting mechanisms that underlie them. System transformation cannot occur without changing these underlying structures and supporting mechanisms. However, the capacity for actors to take up specific roles and responsibilities in scaling processes is sometimes lacking. Stimulating system transformation therefore requires enhancing actors’ capacity to assume their roles and responsibilities in the system to ensure that scaling processes provide equitable opportunities and contribute to sustainable development.
As a research institution, IWMI stimulates system transformation by building capacity within institutions and facilitating dialogue and collaboration between various stakeholders across sectors and their respective networks. IWMI does this by developing evidence-based capacity-strengthening programs and strategies. These include demand-driven internships with private sector entities and innovation hackathons.
This focus area contributes to the following One CGIAR impact areas:
Strengthening and sustaining the enabling environment
Making agricultural innovations and water solutions available to farmers on a massive scale is crucial if the world is to meet growing food demands and mitigate climate change impacts. However, innovation scaling efforts often do not have the desired impact because they do not sufficiently consider the factors enabling and inhibiting farmers’ adoption of these innovations. In some instances, they may even produce undesirable impacts, including environmental degradation, loss of access to resources and social inequality. IWMI develops tools and other evidence-based resources to help partners and stakeholders understand and sustain the enabling environment and introduce measures to ensure scaling success. In addition, IWMI co-designs innovative, inclusive financial modalities to accelerate investment in innovations by farmers and agri-businesses.
A key part of this focus area is the Accelerator Program, for which 12 small and medium-sized agribusinesses were selected to scale five innovation bundles that support climate information services and climate-smart agriculture.
This focus area contributes to the following One CGIAR impact areas:
Enabling gender and youth inclusion
Agriculture is the bedrock of food and nutrition security and a major source of income and employment in many developing countries. Inclusive agriculture, provides opportunities for women and youth who have historically been excluded from agriculture-led economic growth. Enhancing gender and youth inclusion in high-value agricultural value chains has the potential to increase the production of nutrient-rich, profitable crops and create attractive job opportunities for currently disadvantaged groups. Inclusive agriculture includes ensuring that women, youth and other vulnerable groups gain equitable access to water resources and technologies to support agronomic growth.
IWMI conducts comprehensive analyses of the policy framework and interventions in value chains in key geographies to clarify the barriers to gender and youth inclusion. Inclusion segmentation is also carried out to understand the investment needs and abilities of women and youth regarding innovation. IWMI then makes recommendations and develops evidence-based strategies to enable public and private sector actors to achieve sustainable and inclusive scaling of water solutions and agricultural innovation bundles. Among these strategies are internships with private sector companies for young professionals and entrepreneurs. These create win-win situations in which companies benefit from interns’ specific knowledge or skills while interns gain valuable private sector work experience and mentorship.
This focus area contributes to the following One CGIAR impact areas:
Brokering knowledge for sustainability
As a research-for-development organization, IWMI is both a producer and broker of knowledge. IWMI generates evidence to support investment in innovations that sustainably increase agricultural productivity and economic returns, support human well-being, water security and safeguard ecosystems in a changing climate. Through forums and events, often co-convened with partners, IWMI brokers knowledge exchange to catalyze change in water and food systems and accelerate innovation scaling. These forums and events include multi-stakeholder dialogues, demand-supply linkage workshops and knowledge exchange conferences.
This focus area contributes to the following One CGIAR impact areas:
Cultivating scaling preparedness
Scaling preparedness is a set of actions undertaken throughout the scaling process to maximize the adoption of innovation bundles, accelerate scaling and increase the likelihood of achieving transformational change. In cultivating scaling preparedness, stakeholder engagement is key to gain stakeholders’ buy-in, commitment, resource contribution and investment as well as adaptability. By cultivating scaling preparedness, IWMI is better able to identify and develop high-potential innovation bundles with the greatest chance of being successfully scaled.
This focus area contributes to the following One CGIAR impact areas:
Fostering scaling partnerships
Private sector actors play a central role in the dissemination and adoption of technologies and services such as information, financing, and pre- and after-sales support. IWMI has established scaling partnerships with private sector companies across Africa and Asia. Besides technical assistance, IWMI provides its partner companies with research evidence and advice, risk and suitability assessments and capacity strengthening for effective climate change-related planning and management.
Armed with these tools and resources, companies are better equipped to identify and reach their target customers in ways that are equitable, economically viable and environmentally sustainable. At the same time, farmers benefit from better access to innovations vital for improving livelihoods and climate adaptation.
This focus area contributes to the following One CGIAR impact areas:
Co-developing innovation bundles
Although agricultural water is still mainly funded by the public sector, private sector organizations and farmers are increasingly investing in innovative water management and irrigation technologies. At the same time, simply increasing the amount of finance flowing to the agricultural water sector is not enough to guarantee the uptake of innovative solutions. Investments must also be responsible, targeted and bundled with improved inputs and services, market information and access, and digital payment methods.
Consequently, IWMI partners with farmers and public and private sector actors to co-develop contextually relevant socio-technical-institutional-financial and process innovation bundles that are contextually relevant. IWMI integrates the scaling of innovation bundles into agricultural and food value chains, for instance by strengthening market linkages, to enhance the impacts on farmers’ investments, incomes and livelihoods.
This focus area contributes to the following One CGIAR impact areas:
Gender, intersectionality and social inclusion
It is critical to center gender and intersectional identities when unpacking migration phenomena. Gender as a social construct guides social norms and relations, including the decision-making processes and mechanisms leading to migration. We recognize that the intersections between race, age, class, sex, caste and region shape the migrant experience.
IWMI strives to offer transformative approaches and solutions for women, youth and marginalized groups, regarding them as equal partners in our work rather than passive end-users. For example, within communities that experience male out migration, socio-political systems are restructured to make women, youth and other groups active agents in their own agri-food transformation. Migration patterns contribute to the feminization of agriculture, and women may experience a greater burden of responsibility coupled with an increased ability to access and control resources and policies to build sustainable livelihoods. Acknowledging social complexities helps researchers and communities understand migration trends and address structural power imbalances to build a more equitable world.
This focus area contributes to the following One CGIAR impact areas:
Water, climate change and agrarian stress
Migration, water and climate stress are inextricably linked to rural development. Water stress and climate variability can act as a driver of fragility, intensifying pre-existing political, social, economic and environmental challenges. Initiatives designed to address migration-related challenges must tackle inequalities and the exclusion of women, youth and marginalized groups; governance opportunities to better manage water and natural resources and technology and innovations to help communities escape socio-ecological precarity and thrive despite climate challenges. IWMI intends to build climate resilience by implementing projects which tackle gender-power inequalities in the face of dynamic, economic-social-ecological challenges. Our work brings together affected communities, institutional stakeholders and social actors to manage water in response to climate variability and agrarian stress, striving to address complex physical and social variables.
This focus area contributes to the following One CGIAR impact areas:
Urban & rural transformation
As agricultural opportunities fluctuate in rural areas, migration, particularly to urban areas, is an adaptation technique to secure incomes and alternative livelihoods. Income generated by migrants is often sent back to family as remittances to support communities at home. At IWMI, we assess linkages between rural and urban areas, as well as the role of agricultural knowledge systems and food and water security. We recognize there are complex push and pull factors such as individual aspirations, economic opportunity, social norms, climate variability and government policies which drive migration and affect rural communities, particularly youth. Our work follows a ‘positive migration’ philosophy, framing migration as an adaptation technique and socio-economic choice (in many cases) rather than a problem to be solved, and focuses on establishing safer, more regular migration by supporting changes to migration governance in sending regions.
This focus area contributes to the following One CGIAR impact areas:
Economics and equity
At IWMI, researching underlying economic and social trends helps us understand why people migrate. They also explain the impact of remittances and loss of agricultural labor, as well as consequences of migration on gender roles and food and water security. For instance, communities with higher levels of income inequality, or relative deprivation, may experience greater levels of out-migration compared to consistently low-income communities. In addition, migration changes intra-household gender-labor composition, which can change the access of smallholders to water resources, affecting the functioning of community-based institutions and consequently household and local food security. IWMI also focuses on circular economy, a strategy to recover and reuse waste, to boost food security and understand how interventions can encourage refugee and host communities to retain scarce resources.
This focus area contributes to the following One CGIAR impact areas:
Human capacity development and knowledge exchange
Scaling farmer-led irrigation requires strengthening human capacity and knowledge exchange among all actors and stakeholders involved. IWMI takes an action research approach, working with national and international research institutions, governments, extension agents and public and private organizations to co-develop the scaling ecosystem and strengthen capacity to drive scaling networks and collective action. We support the development of or reinforce national multi-stakeholder dialogues with the aim of sharing scaling experiences and realizing win-win collaboration, interactive learning and capacity development. Other modalities for capacity development include hackathons, innovation research grants for bachelor’s and master’s students, private sector scaling grants and innovation internships with private companies. These all serve to stimulate local and contextually relevant innovation, close the research-private sector divide and enhance job readiness among young professionals.
This focus area contributes to the following One CGIAR impact areas:
Financing ecosystem
A lack of affordable credit, particularly for women and resource-poor farmers, is one of the main barriers to expanding farmer-led irrigation in low- and middle-income countries. But credit alone is not enough. Financing for irrigation equipment must be embedded in a wider financing ecosystem that bundles credit with inputs and services, market information and access, and technology such as digital payment. In several countries, irrigation equipment suppliers are stepping in to provide financing directly to farmers. In doing so, they increase their own risk. To address this issue, IWMI works with farmers, private companies, finance institutions and development partners such as the World Bank Group to analyze whether credit-scoring tools are inclusive. We also help to identify gaps in the financing ecosystem and de-risk the private sector from testing innovative end-user financing mechanisms that take into account farming system typologies, financial and social capital and crop seasonality.
This focus area contributes to the following One CGIAR impact areas:
Adaptive scaling and partnerships
The ability of farmers to engage in or expand irrigation depends on the prevailing socioeconomic, ecological and political contexts, which are often complex, non-linear and changeable. Overcoming systemic barriers to farmer-led irrigation development while taking advantage of existing opportunities requires scaling processes to be adaptive. This means diverse actors feed off, adapt to, support, cooperate, compete and interact with each other, forming different multi-actor networks and engaging in collective action to undertake various functions in the scaling ecosystem. IWMI works with farmers and public and private sector partners to co-design and pilot contextually relevant innovation bundles and their scaling pathways or strategies, influence policies and accelerate the transition to scale of innovations with demonstrated early impact.
This focus area contributes to the following One CGIAR impact areas:
Environmental sustainability
Population pressure and increasing water competition in a changing climate require us to take stock of the availability and use of water across scales. Water availability not only influences farmers’ commercial prospects but also irrigation-related enterprises and agri-businesses. Greater water scarcity could jeopardize irrigation and agricultural markets while excessive water use can lead to declining ecosystems, water quality and soil health. IWMI advises development partners and the public and private sectors on all aspects of water resource availability and use through a variety of advanced modeling and remote-sensing products and tools, including Water Accounting+, solar irrigation mapping and internet of things. These are complemented by multi-criteria analysis to evaluate the potential of irrigation expansion, taking into consideration environmental flows. With our private sector partners, we are leveraging converging technologies, such as sensors on solar pumps that capture usage data, to encourage better resource management and governance.
This focus area contributes to the following One CGIAR impact areas:
Gender and social inclusion
The barriers facing women and men in accessing irrigation technologies are not the same. Neither are the benefits. Social, cultural and religious norms influence inter- and intra-household power relations. These, in turn, affect access to resources such as land, credit, information and training. IWMI carries out cross-dimensional analysis of gender and social inclusion in policy, financing, livelihood assets and access, institutional approaches and interventions as well as gender-based technology preferences. For example, we work with farmers, financial institutions and the private sector to address gender-based constraints in credit scoring and enhance women’s purchasing power. But benefitting from farmer-led irrigation does not stop at accessing and adopting technologies; enabling women and resource-poor farmers to participate in input and output markets is equally important to ensure that investments in irrigation result in improved nutrition and economic empowerment. Other ways we enhance gender and social inclusion include tackling agency issues around financial management and literacy, livelihood diversity and social capital as well as access to infrastructure, extension services and market linkages.
This focus area contributes to the following One CGIAR impact areas:
Innovation bundles
Farmer-led irrigation development is about much more than installing a pump in a field. It requires access to financing, labor, energy, and input and output markets, so that investments in irrigation translate into sustainable returns. IWMI uses a systemic approach to understand the farming system as well as the factors in the enabling environment that prevent women, men and youth from engaging in and benefitting equitably from farmer-led irrigation. We partner with farmers and the public and private sectors to test contextually relevant innovation bundles that combine irrigation technology such as solar pumps with financing mechanisms like pay-as-you-own or pay-as-you-go, agricultural inputs and agronomic techniques. We also look at ways to improve on-farm water management and nutrient use efficiency and reduce evapotranspiration through digital advances and agricultural extension. We integrate the scaling of innovation bundles into agricultural value chains to enhance the impacts on farmers’ irrigation investments, incomes and livelihoods.
This focus area contributes to the following One CGIAR impact areas:
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Enhancing capacity for system transformation
Strengthening and sustaining the enabling environment
Enabling gender and youth inclusion
Brokering knowledge for sustainability
Cultivating scaling preparedness
Fostering scaling partnerships
Co-developing innovation bundles
Scaling farmer-led irrigation requires strengthening human capacity and knowledge exchange among all actors and stakeholders involved. IWMI takes an action research approach, working with national and international research institutions, governments, extension agents and public and private organizations to co-develop the scaling ecosystem and strengthen capacity to drive scaling networks and collective action. We support the 
A lack of affordable credit, particularly for women and resource-poor farmers, is one of the main barriers to expanding farmer-led irrigation in low- and middle-income countries. But 
The ability of farmers to engage in or expand irrigation depends on the prevailing socioeconomic, ecological and political contexts, which are often complex, non-linear and changeable. Overcoming systemic barriers to farmer-led irrigation development while taking advantage of existing opportunities 
Population pressure and increasing water competition in a changing climate require us to take stock of the availability and use of water across scales. Water availability not only influences farmers’ commercial prospects but also irrigation-related enterprises and agri-businesses. Greater water scarcity could jeopardize irrigation and agricultural markets while excessive water use can lead to declining ecosystems, water quality and soil health. IWMI advises development partners and the public and private sectors on all aspects of water resource availability and use through a variety of advanced modeling and remote-sensing products and tools, including 
