In many developing countries high urbanization rates are causing massive surface and groundwater pollution and cross-sectoral water competition is threatening agricultural productivity and livelihoods in areas close to cities and beyond.

Clearly, the agricultural use of untreated wastewater is undesirable from a health and environmental viewpoint. Yet millions of poor farmers in the developing world depend on water of marginal quality for irrigation as they may have no better alternative or because wastewater may be the only affordable or reliable water and nutrient source.However, the conventional water, sanitation and health sector generally views polluted water one-dimensionally, focusing only on human and environmental health implications, and advocating technology-based water treatment solutions as prerequisites to reuse. This theme research recognizes that wastewater use is a livelihood reality in many poor countries that cannot afford the investment and maintenance costs of treatment plants,